Psychoanalysis

• Overview: Psychoanalysis, rooted in Sigmund Freud's theories, is an individualistic approach that explores unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions to understand and treat criminal behavior. It emphasizes the role of a weak superego and inadequate socialization in the development of criminality.
• Freud's Theory: - Freud's theory posits that unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions influence behavior. - He believed that early childhood experiences and inadequate socialization contribute to a weak superego. - This lack of moral force can lead to selfish instincts and criminal behavior.
• Weak Superego: - A weak superego results from inadequate socialization during childhood. - Individuals with a weak superego may lack the moral constraints to curb selfish instincts, potentially leading to criminal behavior.
• Treatment of Criminality: - Psychoanalysis has been used as a treatment for criminality, although it is not widely used today. - It involves bringing unconscious conflicts into conscious awareness for resolution. - The approach is often lengthy, with patients meeting multiple times per week for years.
• Socialization: - Freud believed that inadequate socialization during childhood can lead to a weak superego. - Policies influenced by psychoanalysis, such as those by August Aichhorn, focused on providing supportive environments to promote healthy socialization and superego development in young offenders.
• Therapeutic Techniques: - Psychoanalytic techniques include hypnosis and word association to uncover unconscious conflicts and repressed emotions.

Attachment Disorder

• Overview: Attachment disorder stems from early childhood trauma, hindering the formation of normal relationships. It's a significant focus in education, influencing teacher training and policies.
• Bowlby's Theory: Bowlby's work directly links to attachment disorder, emphasizing the impact of early life experiences on attachment formation. Maternal deprivation is a key concept.
• Education Policies: Strategies for dealing with attachment disorder are integrated into teacher training programs. Schools and local authorities are judged on the performance of looked after children (LAC) - those who are fostered or adopted.
• Support for Looked After Children: Increased funding for schools is allocated to support looked after children who are statistically more likely to have experienced maternal deprivation. Designated teachers for LAC are a common practice.
• Teacher Training: Teacher training programs now include education on attachment disorder and strategies to improve it.
• Funding for Schools: Funding for schools has increased to provide support for looked after children (LAC).

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

• Overview: Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) is a therapeutic approach used to change the way offenders think and behave. It aims to modify attitudes and behaviors through various programs, such as Think First and Aggression Replacement Training (ART), focusing on skills development and moral reasoning.
• Offender Treatment Programs:
  • CBT programs are designed to change offenders' thinking and attitudes to modify their behavior.
  • These programs are often used by probation services.
• Think First Program:
  • A CBT program for repeat offenders on probation.
  • Involves group and one-to-one sessions.
  • Aims to help offenders control their thoughts, feelings, and behavior.
  • Teaches problem-solving skills, consequential thinking, decision-making, and empathy.
  • Provides social interaction and moral reasoning training.
  • Has shown a reasonable success rate with a 30% reduction in reconviction rates compared to alternative community service.
  • However, non-completion rates can be high.
• Aggression Replacement Training (ART):
  • Another CBT program for violent or aggressive offenders.
  • Involves training in interpersonal skills, anger control techniques, and alternative courses of action.
  • Includes moral reasoning training to challenge offenders' attitudes.
  • Evaluations often show lower reconviction rates for those who attend ART.
  • Some evaluations have found that while thinking skills improve, aggression can persist.
• Moral Reasoning:
  • Moral reasoning training is a component of both the Think First and ART programs.
  • It involves challenging offenders' attitudes and considering moral dilemmas.
• Recidivism Rates:
  • CBT programs like Think First and ART aim to reduce recidivism rates.
  • Think First has demonstrated a reduction in reconviction rates.
  • ART has also shown lower reconviction rates in some evaluations.

Aversion Therapy

• Overview: Aversion therapy is a psychological treatment that aims to reduce unwanted behaviors by associating them with unpleasant stimuli, such as electric shocks or nausea-inducing drugs. It has been used for treating conditions like sex offending and alcoholism, but also raises ethical concerns and has been subject to abuse.
• Sex Offender Treatment: - Involves asking offenders to think about unacceptable sexual fantasies. - Aversive stimuli (electric shocks or nausea-inducing drugs) are administered during arousal. - The goal is to associate the deviant behavior with the aversive stimulus. - This is repeated until the offender associates the deviant arousal and behavior with the stimulus, with the aim of stopping the thoughts and therefore the offending behavior.
• Alcoholism Treatment: - Uses a nausea-producing drug for conditioning. - The drug is added to alcohol. - The individual associates alcohol with nausea. - The aim is to stop alcohol consumption.
• Ethical Issues: - The use of aversion therapy raises significant ethical concerns due to the use of aversive stimuli and potential for abuse.
• Human Rights Concerns: - Aversion therapy has been used to try to "cure" homosexuality, constituting a clear human rights abuse.
• Conditioning Techniques: - Aversion therapy employs classical conditioning techniques. - It involves pairing unwanted behaviors or thoughts with aversive stimuli to create a negative association, with the goal of reducing the frequency of the unwanted behavior.

Token Economies

• Overview: Token economies are a form of behavior modification used in closed institutions, such as prisons, designed to encourage desirable behavior through a system of rewards and reinforcement. They are influenced by individualistic theories and have been implemented in various settings, including the US prison system.
• Behavior Modification: - Token economies are designed to obtain desirable behavior.
  • Used in closed institutions such as prisons and young offenders units.
  • Based on the principles of reinforcement to shape behavior.
• Hobbs and Holt Study: - Conducted in Alabama, USA with delinquent boys (ages 12-15) in a state training school.
  • Aimed to discover the effects of a token economy program on criminal behavior.
  • Involved 125 delinquent males residing in five independent cottage units.
• Reinforcement: - Token economies use rewards to encourage positive behavior.
  • In prison systems, this includes earning privileges (incentives and earned privileges system - IEPs).
  • Examples of rewards may include more spending money.
• Prison Systems: - The US and other countries use token economies in prison systems.
  • Prisoners can earn rewards for following rules (Incentives and earned privileges system (IEPs)).
  • There are different levels within the system, such as basic, standard, and enhanced.
  • Token economies can improve behavior in prison.
  • Some criticisms involve withholding food or drink as rewards, which raises human rights concerns.
• Recidivism: - Token economies may not always transfer to the home environment after release from prison.
  • The positive effects of the system may disappear after leaving the prison.
  • Offenders who participate in token economy programs tend to return to crime more slowly.
  • Token economies do not cure criminality.
  • There is a chance of recidivism.
  • Token economies do not work for everyone (10-20% of people).