Organisational Communications

Pages 145 to 171 and 234 to 259
Chain Network - Information is passed straight up or down the line. Chains have a leader (A) who decides what messages should be passed on and how. Messages, especially those that must be legally correct, may use this structure.
The Wheel Network - "The wheel (or ‘star’) network has a central leader (A). There is little or no connection between the ‘spokes’. In this structure, the leader controls lines of communication and ensures that messages are passed on efficiently.
The Circle Network - "The circle network is where all information is shared equally between all members of the network. In this structure, members feel the greatest satisfaction.
The Y Network - "The Y network – here information from the leader (A) is shared at the same time through two channels (C, D) who pass on the information outwards. This structure can spread information faster than the chain.
"Organisational culture is a system of shared values, principles, beliefs and norms of behaviour that unite its members and give the organisation a distinctive character. " three ways in which culture is created: ‘First, founders hire and keep only employees who think and feel the same way they do. Second, they indoctrinate and socialise these employees to their way of thinking and feeling. And, finally, the founders’ own behaviour acts as a role model that encourages employees to identify with them and thereby internalise their beliefs, values and assumptions.’ An established culture is sustained through selection practices, the actions of top management, socialisation and communication.
Purpose of workplace communications (See page 149): 1) Control 2) Motivate 3) Balance needs and goals 4) Manage knowledge
Formal Communication Channels
1. "Formal communication channels convey official, approved information. (page 151) The four formal communication channels are downward, upward, lateral and diagonal.
2. "The following three features can cause communication problems or barriers in an organisation: 1) Management is too centralised. 2) There are too many management layers. 3) The organisational structure is too complex
3. "The more formal and structured the organisation, the greater the chance that informal ways around the paperwork will develop.
Informal communication channels
1. "The informal structure in an organisation is composed of the links between individuals and whole sections of a company that bypass the formal structures in the decision-making processes. Informal means of communication include telephone conversations between managers that smooth the way
2. "1) The single strand network consists of a long chain of people who each pass the message to the next person. It is the least frequently used method. 2) The gossip chain is one person arbitrarily telling all the others. This is also used infrequently. 3) The probability chain is another way of passing information along on a random basis, with one person arbitrarily telling another person, who then tells one or two others and so on. 4) The cluster chain is the most commonly used network, where one person tells two or three people, who in turn keep the information to themselves or pass it on to two or three others.
3. The grapevine - "The main characteristics of the grapevine are: 1) It is not controlled by management. 2) It is mainly controlled by employees. 3) It serves the self-interests of those in the group. 4) It usually has branches going in all directions and spreads rumours quickly. 5) It is perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than formal communication from top management.
Organisational Structure
1. "Organisational structure refers to how authority and responsibility for decision making are distributed within an organisation." "It involves: reporting relationships; range of duties; ways decisions are made; communication flows within the organisation. "The formal structure of an organisation is characterised by three important features: complexity, formalisation and centralisation.
2. "Complexity is a factor of the number of sections, departments, individual job functions and titles in an organisation. Formalisation in an organisation is the existence of firmly structured lines of communication, authority and control. Centralisation refers to the degree of decision- making power located at the highest level. Hierarchy is an organisational system that moves through a number of levels. A bureaucracy is a system characterised by division of labour, a clearly defined hierarchy and detailed rules and regulations.
3. "Bureaucratic structures may be functional or divisional, or a hybrid of both. A functional structure divides the organisation into segments or departments based on positions grouped into functional or specialisation areas. The organisation that combines positions on the basis of similarity of expertise, skills and work activity has a functional structure..
4. "A simple structure is less complex, with few levels of management Staff communicate directly with managers and have more autonomy than those in a bureaucratic structure. There are fewer decision makers to negotiate with. Employees have discretion in the job, and a high degree of independence and control over their work.
5. "The matrix structure links together divisions, departments, functions and people in horizontal and vertical relationships. An organisation chart for a matrix organisation reveals the vertical operational responsibilities and horizontal linkages that facilitate the coordination and smooth interaction of employees and commu- nication systems.
6. "The knowledge management structure is not complex. It is usually flat, with very few levels of management and only one or two decision makers to negotiate with in order to reach the chief executive officer (CEO)." "Social networking analysis (SNA) is the mapping and measuring of relationships and flows between people and groups within an organisation. SNA is an activity that enables organisations with a knowledge management structure to identify key leaders and subject matter experts. The organisation is then able to set up mechanisms such as communities of practice to enable leaders and experts to pass on their knowledge to others.
7. "The boundaryless structure is designed to replace the primary dimensions (boundaries) of traditional structures—size, role clarity, specialisation and control—with a structure that facilitates flexibility, speed and integration of functions and processes to generate, harness and leverage knowledge, people and resources
8. "A network structure contracts out many functions to other independent firms and coordinates and communicates through IT networks.
9. Informal structures - "The main advantages of the informal organisation are faster action, higher productivity, more job satisfaction, easier release of tension and easier feedback.
The all channel network - "allows all group members to communicate actively with each other. It is more an ideal than a reality, in which every member of the organisation is able to communicate directly as an equal with every other member."
"‘repeated experiments show the wheel pattern to be the most efficient’. She says that in repeated experiments it was found that informal hierarchies usually emerged in both the circle and all-channel networks,.
" Network analysis provides a picture of the patterns of interaction that define an organisation’s communication structure. "four uses of network analysis: 1) to make it possible to determine whether the actual communication structure corresponds with the expected channels, group structures and member roles 2) to identify liaison and bridge links that seldom appear on formal organisational charts 3) to identify the isolates 4) to identify new or ‘hidden’ network structures."
1. "a gatekeeper as ‘the person who has the power of controlling the message flow’ (1987, p. 53). In the diagram, the gatekeeper is the person who receives information from the liaison person and then decides whether or not to pass it on.
"Mechanistic organisations operate in a stable, highly structured environment. "Static, rigid, vertically oriented, pyramid- shaped; Uses rules, policies, procedures; Decision making concentrated on top; Authority based on position; Elaborate control system; Rigid communication channels.
1. "Organic organisations have low formalisation, horizontal communication and coordination, and participative decision making, and are responsive to changes in the environment. "Fluid, dynamic, ever-changing; Flattened shape; Horizontally oriented; Collaboration; Decision making at all levels; Authority based on expertise; Communication flows based on current needs.
"Sections or groups in an organisation that are provided with general objectives and targets by senior managers and then left to decide the work process themselves are termed autonomous or semi-autonomous work groups.
"A free-form structure exists when an individual or a group is given almost total freedom by the company’s top management to complete a given task. A free-form structure is simple, with few layers of management, and may even be boundaryless. Decision making is in the hands of those doing the work.
"‘New’ networks are empowered to make decisions and knowledge is shared along all channels of communication.
Meetings
1. "Face-to-face and online (or virtual) meetings cover three main areas of responsibility. First, the organisation’s responsibility is to provide the policy and procedures. Second, the meeting’s executive or online facilitator is responsible for organising and running the meeting within its standing orders and formalities. And third, members are required to participate and take part in the decision making that initiates and implements actions within the meeting’s areas of expertise and interest.
2. "Meetings can provide and clarify information, give and receive feedback, allow discussion and enable members to come to some form of agreement or decision.
3. Features of effective meetings: 1) "Purposeful with a clearly defined agenda and constructive outcome(s) 2) Cost-effective as time is used well by participants and the organisation 3) Participant-friendly to facilitate commitment to proceedings, decisions and planned action(s)"
4. "Formal meetings are structured, with rules and regulations that follow the British Westminster system of government. " A consti- tution is a document setting out the broad structure and requirements of an organisation. It contains the organisation’s name, aims and objectives, rules of administration, membership, office bearers and committee. Standing orders set out the specific procedures for conducting formal meetings.
5. Types of meetings (page 236)
6. strategies that aid participation in meetings see page 238
7. "In any role at a meeting, members have two main responsibilities: 1 to prepare for the meeting 2 to participate in the meeting.
8. "Tropman’s (1996) Agenda Bell, with agenda items allocated within a two-hour meeting. Easy items are discussed in the first third, hard items in the second third and discussion items in the last third. "
9. Chairperson
  1. "The chairperson is the presiding officer of a meeting, committee or board. He or she should be able to provide leadership to achieve the goals of the meeting, maintain control, exercise impartiality and understand meeting procedures. The chairperson is either elected or appointed and has a twofold responsibility: 1 to prepare and set the scene for the meeting 2 to conduct the meeting according to the standing orders or rules of the organisation, committee or meeting.
  2. "Maintaining focus - An effective chairperson is able to maintain focus throughout the meeting. five rules to focus the group: 1) Agenda integrity: all items on the agenda are discussed; items not on the agenda are not discussed. 2) Temporal integrity: begin on time, end on time and keep to a sensible internal schedule of items within the meeting. 3) The rule of halves: provide the person organising the agenda with all the items to be discussed halfway between meetings—that is, if meetings are six weeks apart, by three weeks after the previous meeting. 4) The rule of thirds: the agenda scheduler orders the items so that the most important or the most difficult items come in the middle third. 5) The rule of three-quarters: three-quarters of the way between the meetings, all relevant material is forwarded to members.
  3. conducting thee meeting (see page 241)
10. "A quorum is the minimum number of people that must be at a meeting for business to be conducted.
11. "A point of order asks whether proceedings are in order."
12. " four basic principles of parliamentary law cited by Marguerite Grumme, parliamentarian: 1) courtesy and justice to all 2) consider one thing at a time 3) the minority must be heard 4) the majority must prevail.
13. "A motion is a specific proposal for action formally put by a member to the rest of the meeting" "Once the motion is put to the meeting, it must be seconded by another member before it can be discussed and voted on by the meeting. The chairperson asks for a seconder. When the motion is seconded, the chairperson asks the mover of the motion to speak to it; that is, to address the motion. A time limit is imposed by the standing orders or by the chairperson. After the mover of the motion speaks to it, the chairperson asks if anyone would like to speak against the motion. Then discussion on the motion is opened to all members present at the meeting.
  1. "An amendment to the motion can be suggested by any member. An amendment is a proposal to alter the wording to improve and add clarity to the motion by rearranging, removing or adding words.
  2. "The chairperson asks members to vote for or against the motion, usually by a verbal ‘aye’ or ‘nay’, by a show of hands or by a ballot. "On those occasions when votes for the motion equal those against, the vote is tied. The chairperson then has the casting vote to break the tied vote. The chairperson abstains from voting except when the meeting’s vote is tied.
  3. "A proxy is a written authorisation given by a shareholder for someone else, usually the company’s management, to cast his or her vote at a shareholders’ meeting or at another time.
14. Secretary - "The secretary convenes all meetings and prepares the agenda in consultation with the chairperson. The agenda clearly states the time, date and place of the next meeting, and the order in which items will be discussed.They are in charge of documentation, apologies, correspondence and minutes (see page 246)
15. "Task-related roles enable the meeting to move through each step or operation in the meeting’s process. Goal setting, decision making and problem solving are examples of the tasks that enable the meeting to achieve its purpose. Maintenance-related roles are the behaviours that are needed in groups or meetings to focus on people and their relationships with one another—for example, to support and encourage member contribu- tions or to resolve disagreements.
16. "Defensive and dysfunctional roles contrast with task- and maintenance-related roles, which facilitate the achievement of a group’s goals. People take defensive roles—such as tension reliever or scapegoat—to protect other members from the anxiety caused when the meeting is unable to function effectively.
17. Problem people in meetings - "Abstainers hold back and include those who are timid, inarticulate or in need of encouragement. Other abstainers are those who are aloof and intimidating, and those who are uncharacteristically silent. Spoilers such as ego-trippers, compulsive talkers, snobs, filibusters (monopolisers), snipers and private combatants have to be restrained. Usurpers try to take over and start a separate meeting. "show-offs who want to highlight their expertise, meeting extenders who want to prolong meetings to avoid work and those who shoot down other people’s ideas and hence extinguish creative ideas."
18. Virtual meetings
  1. "It can be any of the following: delivery of information to an audience—for example, a broadcast lecture or a webinar using the Internet to coordinate and manage verbal and audiovisual presentation of information, and questions from the audience; an exchange of ideas and opinion, as in an Internet chat session or newsgroup, without any attempt to come to a conclusion, or in a private, Wide Area Network (WAN) within an organisation; a formal and structured event with an agenda or a set of objectives that attempts to come to some form of agreement or decision.
  2. "Meetings conducted by electronic conferencing can take many forms: teleconferencing; audioconferencing; web conferencing; videoconferencing and telepresence (meetings that incorporate high-quality audio and lifelike video to give the feeling of being in the same room with the other participants).
  3. "suggests applying the 80/20 rule to online meetings. ‘Spend 80 percent of the meeting time on topics that require all-participant interaction, and 20 percent of the meeting time on information-only topics ... Reserve the majority of the online meeting time for interaction—identifying issues, brainstorm- ing solutions, making decisions, and building alignment.’ She goes on to argue that, because virtual teams collaborate 84% less frequently than traditional same-site teams, online meeting time should not be wasted on anything that can be shared by email or other one-way media."
  4. "Synchronous virtual meetings—that is, where all group members participate at the same time—require forward planning and organisation. "Visual contact facilitates higher levels of participation and retention of meeting content.
  5. "Teleconferencing, where two or more people in different locations participate in an interactive communica- tions session, is the most common form of virtual meeting. Each participant or small groups of participants must have access to a telephone or speaker phone. A designated time for the conference call is circulated and all conference members must be available at that time. Calls can be set up as ‘listen-only’, where only the moderator speaks, or in a ‘question and answer’ mode, where each participant is introduced and the moderator controls the interactive discussion.
  6. "Audioconferencing enables members who are geographically dispersed to communicate verbally without the expense of meeting face-to-face. Audioconferencing takes place via the Internet. Telephone calls are made to any part of the world for the cost of a local connection. The voice is digitised and the digital data are sent to their destination via the Internet. All that is required is a headset with earphones, a microphone and the required software.
  7. "Webconferencing is used to conduct live meetings over the Internet. Each member is connected with other members and able to participate in the meeting.
  8. "Videoconferencing technology differs from other forms of conferencing in that it allows two or more people in diverse locations to see and hear each other simultaneously. "Videoconferencing combines audio commu- nication with live video, allowing participants to see each other.
  9. See page 254.
  10. "‘Groupthink’, a condition of like-mindedness, is a factor that can influence decisions made in meetings. this condition arises in groups that are particularly cohesive. When groupthink exists, ‘people in the group will exert pressure against any dissenting viewpoints’. this type of thinking is counterproductive: it stifles creativity and any fresh approaches to solving problems.
19. Seating arrangements - "Leaders and other key players generally opt for the seats with the best direct eye contact, which are usually at the ends of the table. ‘People seated closest to the leader and key players generally minimize their effectiveness because they have the least eye contact with the leader.’ Seating arrangements can facilitate communication, encourage formality (or informality) and emphasise power and status.
  1. "The ideal seating arrangement, the circular or oval shape allows everyone to see everyone else. "The long rectangular table is less than ideal. It can lead to such problems as ‘meetings within meetings’.
"A committee is a specific type of meeting. It is a group of people with the delegated authority to consider, investigate and report or act on some matter. Types of committees (see page 238)
Communication barriers - "Verbal communication barriers are caused by illogical organisation of words and unclear, ambiguous and discourteous ways of speaking. Jargon, slang and negative language also interfere with the communication flow. Address a person by the wrong name or use the wrong level of formality and there may be an immediate communication barrier. "The tone of voice, type of eye contact, gestures, use of space, clothing and appearance all affect communication.
1. Attittude to meetings - "First, it is cultural: the tendency to support individual action over group action. Second, decision groups are ubiquitous: they appear everywhere.

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