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What are the two sources of antibacterial agents?
What is an antibiotic?
Give two example of fungal antibiotics
What are actinomycetes?
Give an example of an actinomycetes antibiotic?
Define antimicrobial
What were the first antimicrobials to be synthesised? From what? What year? By who?
What is ampicillin?
What are quinolines?
What are the ways in which antibiotics can be classified?
Give examples of a bactericidal antimicrobials (5)
Give examples of bacteriostatic antimicrobials (6)
What are chloramphenicol used to treat?
What can determine whether a antimicrobial is bacteriostatic or bactericidal (most have the capacity to be either)? (3)
Give three examples of antimicrobials which are effective against gram +tive aerobes ONLY.
Give example of a narrow spectrum antimicrobial which is only effectives Gram -tive aerobes.
Give an three examples of narrow spectrum antimicrobials which are effective at treating both gram +tive and gram -tive aerobes.
Give an example of a narrow spectrum antimicrobial which is effective against anaerobes
Give five examples of broad spectrum antimicrobials.
What does the spectrum of activity of antimicrobials depend on?
How is the therapeutic index calculated?
What type of therapeutic index do aminoglycosides have? Penicillins?
How does antibiotic selectivity occur? (4)
Why do you have to be careful when using antimicrobials which target bacterial ribosomes?
How many conserved regions are there in bacteria?
How many conserved bacterial regions are exploited? What are they?
How many targets/pathways do even the most successful antibiotics hit? What are they?
What class of antibiotics interfere with cell wall synthesis? What type of antibiotic is included within this?
How does vancomycin exert its effect on bacteria?
How do polymyxins exert their antimicrobial effect?
Which two classes of antibiotics interfere with the 30S subunit of bacterial ribosomes?
How do streptogramins, chloramphenicol and clindamycin interefere with bacteria?
How does rifampin exert an effect on bacteria?
How do quinolones interfere with bacteria?
How do sulfonamides and trimethoprim damage bacteria?
Describe the structure of beta-lactam ring. Give two examples of antibiotics which contain B-lactam ring? What other ring does it contain?
What do most beta-lactam antibiotics do?
Describe the typical structure of a cell wall of S. aureus
What are NAG and NAM derived from?
What are the four amino acids attached to each sugar?
Which enzyme is responsible for the synthesis of the formation of the pentaglycine cross link to be synthesised (and thus the cell wall)? What happens the bridge is formed?
How does penicillin interfere with transpeptidase?
What therefore are the 3 roles of transpeptidase
What class of antibiotics do vancomycin and teicoplanin belong to?
Describe the structure of glycopeptide antibiotics
What type of bacteria can glycopeptide antibiotics target?
How do glycopeptide antibiotics interefere with bacteria?
How is vancomycin delivered? What is it used to treat?
What is vancomycin considered a last resort medication for?
What are the two types of polymyxin? What do they do? What are they used to treat?
How is colistin used? Why?
How do polymyxins work? Which type of bacteria do they taregt?
What type of bacteria do polymyxins target?
How does chloramphenicol interefere with protein synthesis?
What are the three other classes of antibiotics which inhibit protein synthesis?
Give two examples of macrolides and explain how they works. Which other class of antibiotics does the same thing (give an example). What are they good at treating?
How do tetracyclines function? Give two examples.
Give an example of an aminoglycoside and explain how it works
Which type of bacteria is streptomycin effective against?
Give three more examples of aminoglycosides - what type(s) of bacteria are they effective against?
How are aminoglycosides delivered?
What can they cause at high doses?
What class of antibiotics do tetracyclines, macrolides and lincosamides all belong to? What are they good at treating and why?
Give examples of quinolones/fluoroquinolones. What type of antibiotic are they (spectrum)?
What is the mechanism of action of quinolones and fluoroquinolones?
What is the function of topoisomerase II (DNA gyrase) and topoisomerase? How does antibiotic binding interact with this?
What type of pathogen are quinolones and fluoroquinolones active against? Give three examples - why can't antibiotics which damage cell walls have an effect? Where are these types of bacteria increasingly being seen?
What is rifampicin? What are they particularly effective against?
Why is rifampicin good at treating TB meningitis? What else can it be used to treat?
What do sulphonamides do? Give two examples?
What system do sulphonamides take advantage of?
What is folic acid used for?
What is the bacteria only part of the biosynthesis of purines?
What is the rest of the biosynthesis pathway (eukaryotes + prokaryotes)?
How precisely do sulphonamides interfere with folic acid biosynthesis?
What stage of biosynthesis of purines do trimethoprim interfere with? Why is this safe to use in humans?
Who needs to be immunised and against what?
What is an ideal vaccine
What is a primary failure?
What is a secondary failure?
What is the issue surrounding inactivated vaccines
Why might some individuals produce an immune response?
What do most antibacterial vaccines offer? What are the two types?
How are live attenuated bacterial vaccines produced? What is the difference compared to more virulent strains?
What is the BCG?
TY21a (live typhoid vaccine)?
CBD 103-HgR (cholera vaccine)?
How are inactivated bacterial vaccines produced?
What are the different forms of inactivated bacterial vaccines? (3)
Give four examples of whole killed bacteria vaccinations.
Give an example of a vaccine which uses a protein subunit
Give two examples of a toxoid vaccination
What are the two types of polysaccharide vaccines?
Give three examples of pure polysaccharide vaccines. What do they predominantly lead to the production of? How immunogenic are they?
What are conjugate vaccine? Give three examples. How immunogenic are they?
How do vaccinations affect the humoral immune response?
Which combined vaccination is given at 6 weeks? Single vaccinations?
Which combined vaccination is given at 12 weeks? Single vaccination?
Which combined vaccination is given at 16 weeks? Single vaccination?
Which combined vaccination is given at 1 year? Single vaccination?
Which combined vaccination is given at 2-8 years? Single vaccination?
Which combined vaccination is given at 3 years and four months? Single vaccination?
Which combined vaccination is given at 12-13 (girls only)? Single vaccination?
Which combined vaccination is given to teenagers and first year university students?? Single vaccination?
What five factors are contributing to antimicrobial resistance?
How much do antibiotics increase our lifespan by?
What are antibiotics essential for?
How many deaths per year in Europe are attributed to multi-drug resistance?
Define intrinsic resistance.
What is acquired resistance? What transfers this resistance?
What is MRSA?
What can MRSA cause?
How is MRSA resistant to penicillin?
What can antimicrobial resistant E. coli cause? How is it resistant?
What are carbapenems used for? Give an example.
What is the major concern with carbapenems?
How many deaths per year are caused by resistant pathogens
What are the three intrinsic mechanism of antimicrobial resistance.
What are the 5 types of acquired antibiotic resistance?
Which antibiotics are susceptible to degradation/modification?
Which antibiotic can B-lactamases hydrolyse?
What are isolates which are resistant to all B-lactam antibiotics called? How is B-lactam resistance spread?
What are the two beta-lactamase inhibitors which are often given with penicillins?
What is used to treat resistant strains of S. aureus, E. coli and H. influenzae?
How do efflux pumps lead to increased resistance? How is this spread? What range of antibiotics can be inhibited?
How do mutations in target proteins lead to resistance?
How does bacterial protein point mutations and antibiotics interact? Give an example.
Give an example of how modifications of target proteins causes resistance to macrolides.
Give an example of an antibiotic resistance cause by bypass mechanisms and explain how it works.
When was the last antibiotic discovered which can treat systemic bacterial infections?
What is colistin (polymyxin E for)
What has teixobactin shown to be successful in treating? What is not able to treat?
What are the four main solutions to the current crisis in antimicrobial resistance?
