Outline cell theory

State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life

Relative sizes

Formula for magnification

Formula for actual size

Importance of surface area to volume ratio

State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties

Explain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out specialised functions by using some of their genes but not others

State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the ability to differentiate along different pathways

Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells

Draw E. colli as a prokaryote cell

Annotate the diagram

Identify structure in electron micrographs of E.Coli

State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission

Draw a Liver cell as a Eukaryote cell

Annotate the diagram

Identify electron micrograph of liver cell

Compare and Contrast Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

State 3 differences between plant and animal cells

Outline two roles of extracellular components

Draw diagram of the structure of membranes

Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes

List the functions of membrane proteins

Define Diffusion

Define Osmosis

Explain passive transport across membranes by simple and facilitated diffusion

Explain the role of protein pumps and ATP active transport across membranes

Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell between the rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.

Describe how the fluidity of the membrane allows it to change shape, break and re-form during endocytosis and exocytosis.

Outline the stages of the cell cycle including Interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis and cytokinesis

State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue

State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts

Describe the events that occur in the four stages of mitosis

Diagram of mitosis

Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei

State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual reproduction involve mitosis

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State the most frequently occurring chemical elements in living organisms

State the variety of elements that are needed by any living organism

State one role of each of the elements mentioned

Structure and bonding of water molecules

Outline the thermal, cohesive and solvent properties of water

Explain the relationship between the properties of water and its use in living organisms as a coolant, medium for metabolic reactions and transport medium

Distinguish between organic and inorganic compounds

Identify glucose and ribose

List 3 examples of monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

State one function of glucose, lactose and glycogen in animals, and of fructose, sucrose and cellulose in plants

Outline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationship between monosaccharides, disaccharides and polysaccharides

Identify fatty acids from diagrams showing their structure

State 3 functions of lipids

Compare the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage

Outline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar (deoxyribose), base and phosphate

State the names of the four bases in DNA

Explain how a DNA double helix is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds

Draw an label a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA

Explain DNA replication in terms of unwinding of the double helix and separation of the strands by helicase, followed by the formation of the new complementary strands by DNA polymerase

Explain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base sequence of DNA

State that DNA is semi-conservative

Compare the structure of RNA and DNA

Outline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase

Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases

Explain the process of translation, leading to polypeptide formation

Discuss the relationship between one gene and one polypeptide.

Define enzyme and active site

Explain enzyme substrate specificity

Explain the effects of temperature, pH and substrate concentration on enzyme activity

Factors affecting enzyme activity

Define denaturation

Explain the use of lactase in the production of lactose-free milk

Define cell respiration

State that, in cell respiration, glucose in the cytoplasm is broken down by glycolysis into pyruvate, with a small yield of ATP

Explain that, during anaerobic cell respiration, pyruvate can be converted in the cytoplasm into lactate, or ethanol and carbon dioxide, with no further yield of ATP

Anaerobic respiration

Explain that, during aerobic cell respiration, pyuvate can be broken down in the mitochondrion into carbon dioxide and water with a large yield of ATP

Anaerobic vs. aerobic respiration

State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy

State that light from the Sun is composed of a range of wavelengths

State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment

Outline the differences in absorption of red, blue and green light by chlorophyll

State that light energy is used to produce ATP and to split water molecules to form oxygen and hydrogen

State that ATP and hydrogen (derived from the photolysis of water) are used to fix carbon molecules to make organic molecules

Explain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of oxygen or the uptake of carbon dioxide, or indirectly by an increase in biomass

Outline the effect of temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis

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State that eukaryotic chromosomes are made of DNA and protein

Define gene

Define allele

Define genome

Define gene mutation

Explain the consequence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the process of transcription and translation using the example of sickle cell anaemia

State that meiosis is a reduction division of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei

Define homologous chromosomes

Outline the process of meiosis, including pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over, followed by two divisions, which results in four haploid cells

Explain that non-disjunction can lead to a change in chromosome number, illustrated by reference to Down syndrome (trisomy 21)

State that, in karyotyping, chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their structure

State that karyotyping is performed using cells collected by chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis, for pre-natal diagnosis of chromosome abnormalities

Analyse a human karyotype to determine gender and whether non-disjunction has occurred

Define Genotype

Define Phenotype

Define dominant allele

Define Recessive allele

Define codominant alleles

Define locus

Define homozogous

Define heterozogous

Define Carrier

Define Test Cross

Determine the genotypes and phenotypes of the offspring of a monohybrid cross using a Punnett grid

State that some genes have more than two alleles (multiple alleles)

Describe ABO blood groups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles

Explain how sex chromosomes control gender by referring to the inheritance of X and Y chromosomes in humans

State that some genes are present on the X chromosome and absent from the shorter Y chromosome

Define sex linkage

Describe the inheritance of colour blindness and haemophilia as examples of sex linkage

State that a human female can be homozygous or heterozygous with respect to sex-linked genes

Explain that female carriers are heterozygous for X-linked recessive alleles

Predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance

Deduce the genotype and phenotype of individuals in pedigree charts

Outline the use of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to copy and amplify minute quantities of DNA.

State that, in gel electrophoresis, fragments of DNA can move in an electric field and are separated according to their size

State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling

Describe the application of DNA profiling to determine paternity and also in forensic investigation

Analyse DNA profiles to draw conclusions about paternity or forensic investigations

Outline three outcomes of the sequencing of the complete human genome

State that, when genes are transferred between species, the amino acid sequence of polypeptides translated from them is unchanged because the genetic code is universal

Outline a basic technique used for gene transfer involving plasmids, a host cell (bacterium, yeast or other cell), restriction enzymes (endonucleases) and DNA ligase

State two examples of current uses of genetically modified crops or animals

Discuss the potential benefits and potential harmful effects of one example of genetic modification

Define clone

Outline a technique for cloning using differentiated animal cells

Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic cloning in humans.

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Define species

Define Habitat

Define Population

Define Community

Define Ecosystem

Define Ecology

Distinguish between autotroph and heterotroph

Distinguish between consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs

Decribe what is meant by a food chain, giving three examples, each with at least three linkages (four organisms)

Describe what is meant by a food web

Define Trophic Level

Deduce the trophic levels of organisms in a food web and food chain

Construct a food web containing up to 10 organisms, using appropriate information

State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities

Explain the energy flow in a food chain

tate that energy transformations are never 100% efficient

Explain the reason for the shape of pyramids of energy

Explain that energy enters and leaves ecosystems, but nutrients must be recycled

State that saprotrophic bacteria and fungi (decomposers) recycle nutrients

Draw and label a diagram of the carbon cycle to show the processes involved.

Analyse the changes in concentration of atmospheric carbon dioxide using historical records

Explain the relationship between the rises in concentrations of atmospheric carbon dioxide, methane and oxides of nitrogen and the enhanced greenhouse effect

Outline the precautionary principle

Evaluate the precautionary principle as a justification for strong action in response to the threats posed by the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Outline the consequences of a global temperature rise on arctic ecosystems

Outline how population size is affected by natality, immigration, mortality and emigration

Draw and label a graph showing a sigmoid (S-shaped) population growth curve.

Explain reasons for the exponential growth phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase between these two phases

List three factors that set limits to population increase.

Define Evolution

Outline the evidence for evolution provided by the fossil record, selective breeding of domesticated animals and homologous structures

Continuation of ANSWER

State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support

Explain that the consequence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival

State that members of a species show variation

Explain how reproduction promotes variation within a species

Explain how natural selection leads to evolution

Explain two examples of evolution in response to environmental change; one must be antibiotic resistance in bacteria.

Outline the binomial system of nomenclature

List the seven levels in the hierarchy of taxa - kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species - using an example from two different kingdoms for each level

Distinguish between the following phyla of plants, using simple external recognition features: bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta

Distinguish between the following phyla of animals, using simple external recognition features: porifera, cnidaria, platyhemlnthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda

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Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential

Explain the need for enzymes in digestion

State the source, substrate, product and optimal pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase

Draw and label a diagram of the human digestive system

Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine

Distinguish between absorption and assimilation

Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of products of digesti

Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the route of blood through the heart

State that coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients

Explain the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood, and opening and closing of valves.

Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline)

Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline)

Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins

State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets

State that the following are transported by blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat

Define pathogen

Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses

Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens

Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissue

Distinguish between antigens and antibodies

Explain antibody production

Outline the effect of HIV on the immune system

Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS

Distinguish between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration

Explain the need for a ventilation system

Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange

Draw and label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli.

Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles.

State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that carry rapid electrical impulses

Draw and label a diagram of the structure of the motor neuron

State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons

Define resting potential and action potential (depolarisation and repolarisation)

Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron

Explain the principles of synaptic transmission

State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood

State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance

Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms

Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering.

Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and α and β cells in the pancreatic islets.

Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes

Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems

Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinising hormone), estrogen and progesterone

Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and the thickening of the endometrium

List three roles of testosterone in males

Outline the process of in vitro fertilization (IVF)

Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF