civilization
- developed as people transitioned toward communal living, advanced farming/ herding techniques, turned toward production of pottery/ textiles
- characterized by existence of law/ government, economic growth, military, religion
early communities emerged along rivers
- water needed for survival
- good source of food
  - fish, attraction to other animals
- fertile land for farming
- transportation
main characteristics of river valley civilizations
- cities/ large dense settlements
- separation of population into specialized occupational groups
  - people could have jobs unrelated to food sourcing such as artisans, merchants, healers, etc.
- social hierarchy, including elite population exempt from substance labor
  - elite class dominated lower class
  - elite class didn't have to do blue collar work
  - elite able to tax lower class
- monumental public buildings
- writing
- long distance trade
- rule of law
- non- kin-based society
Mesopotamia (Tigris & Euphrates rivers)
- "land between two rivers"
- history and culture dependent on ebb/ flow of rivers
- flooding threatened towns but rivers were still beneficial in that they nourished soil, enabling people to produce surplus food
- evolved into independent city-states with little interest in unification
- Sumer
  - cuneiform
    - first group to develop system of writing
    - conveyed concepts and sounds
    - led to creation of new social class (scribes)
    - scribal schools centers of learning/ culture
    - math system based on 60
      - explains why there are 60 minutes in 1hr; 360 degrees in circle
      - geometry
      - applied math to construction of buildings/ irrigation
    - calendar based on lunar phases
    - invented wheel and plow, used bronze to make tools
    - medical advances related to religion, basic surgery
  - polytheistic religion
    - gods represented almost everything
    - ziggurat
      - step-shaped pyramid temple in heart of cities
    - priests controlled some government early on
      - farmers relied on priests as a go-between with gods to oppose them
      - priests began to lose control when cities needed military protection
    - military leaders became full-time rulers, passing control onto children, which led to the creation of dynasties
  - Epic Giglamesh
    - details the organization of Sumerian society
    - explains creation of Universe
    - explores morality/ immorality, loyalty, friendship
  - social hierarchy
    - king (kingship is hereditary)
    - nobles (held most of the land's wealth)
    - commoners
    - slaves (foreigners, prisoners of war, criminals/ debtors)
  - women could pursue most occupations, even priesthood
  - demise
    - location (no geographical protection/ predictable flooding)
    - overthrown by 1700 BCE
- Akkadians (2331 BCE)
  - led by King Sargon I
  - created permanent army, became world's 1st empire
  - lasted about 140 days
- Babylonian Empire (1792)
  - led by Hammurabi
  - united all of Mesopotamia
  - code of Hammurabi
    - instituted different laws and punishments by class/ gender
    - punishment should fit the crime
- Hittites (1595)
  - overthrew Babylon
  - use of iron tools in agriculture and war, ultimately leading to their success, as their enemies were still using Bronze
  - horse-drawn chariots
  - defeated in 1200 BCE by Lydians
- Assyrians
  - capital in Niveveh
  - army= war chariots, foot soldiers, cavalry
  - masters at siege warfare
  - allowed kings to rule through local leaders who collected taxes, enforced laws, raised troops
  - constructed roads that linked parts of empire
- Chaldeans
  - Babylon as capital
  - Nebuchadnezzar II
    - fought Egyptians and Jews, captured Jerusalem, rebuilt Babylon into city of splendor
    - Hanging gardens of Babylon
- Phoenicians
  - wealthy trading society
  - Phoenician alphabet
    - more flexible/ easier to use than pictures/ cuneiform
    - 22 letters, all consonants
    - adapted by Greeks who added vowels and then modified by Romans into modern alphabet
- Hebrews
  - monotheism
    - Yahweh
  - migrated from Egypt to Palestine
  - originally nomadic, settled when cities emerged
  - Philistines
    - settled in Canaan
    - knew how to use iron (Hebrews eventually learned)
    - defeated by David and the Jews
  - Jerusalem
    - King Solomon
      - built large temple home to the Arc of the Covenant; 12 districts of Israel (unified Israel)
      - after Solomon's death, Israel was split in 2
      - North destroyed (Israel) by Assyrians
      - South becomes center of Judaism until Babylonian Control
    - After the fall of Babylon, the Persian king allowed Jews to return to Jerusalem and rebuild Solomon's temple
Egypt (Nile River)
- Egypt split in two areas, named after the direction of the Nile
  - Upper (southern) Egypt
    - valley of the Nile
  - Lower (northern) Egypt
    - triangular Delta region
- characteristics
  - social
    - peasants make up the majority of the population
    - women had more freedom than in Mesopotamia
    - Slavery is limited
  - advancement in math/ science/ engineering largely attributed to obsession with afterlife (i.e. pyramids)
  - religion/ government
    - pharaohs- divine kinds
    - ma'at- set of principles from pharaoh enforced by bureaucracy
    - vizier- leader of bureaucracy, hereditary position
- Old Kingdom
  - political unification under theocracy
  - pyramids
  - used hieroglyphics to keep track of land, labor, products, people, taxes
  - men and women have equal rights
  - social hierarchy
    - royal family --> priests --> admin --> regional government --> military commanders --> free workers
  - art and literature displayed interest in maintaining social order and relationship with the gods
  - Book of the Dead
    - rituals and spells to protect journeying spirit
- Middle Kingdom
  - capital in Thebes
  - pride in military defense
  - demise
    - invaders from Hyksos/ climate change (flooding)
- New Kingdom
  - Egypt's first permanent army
  - expanded its rule South; increased trade
  - Queen Hatshepsut
    - queen mother
    - focused on trade rather than war
    - murdered by stepson Thutmose (more interested in war, destroyed paintings of her)
  - Akhenaton (Amenhotep III)
    - changed Egypt to monotheistic-based society, worshiping Aten
  - Tutankhamon
    - restored traditional gods, moved capital back to Thebes
  - Ramses the Great (Ramses II)
    - settled conflict with Hittites by marrying Hittite princess
India (Indus River)
- Khyber Pass
  - allowed trade/ contact with other lands
- skilled builders focused on practical aspects of city
  - brick walls, streets, waste management, writing
- Aryans
  - conquered Indus but chose to live alongside them
  - brought agriculture and class system
    - priests, warriors, peasants/ traders
    - added new class of non-Aryan workers; limited contact with non-Aryans
    - caste system ranked people by occupation color, ritual purity
- language --> Sanskirt
  - Vedas
    - sacred literature consisting of 4 collections of prayer, magical spells, and instructions for rituals
    - most of the info on Aryans come from the Rigveda
China (Yellow River)
- Xia
  - 1st Chinese dynasty
  - formation of authoritarian Central government
- Shang
  - 1st historic dynasty
  - introducing irrigation and flood control systems
  - major cities constructed of wood, highly stratified
  - upper class (Anyang) lived inside the city; lower class lived outside
  - production of silk cloth, pottery (kaolin), bronze casting
  - calendar, written language
  - used religion to bolster ruling position in society
    - prominent burial sites for rulers
  - massive building projects, in particular walls
  - rulers depended on large bureaucracy
    - limited contact w. outside world, trade with Mesopotamia
    - ethnocentric
    - patriarchal society, most power to oldest male
- Zhou
  - developed concept of ruler as divine son of heaven who ruled with Mandate of Heaven
    - gods pleased = wars won, plentiful harvests
    - justification for overthrowing Shang dynasty
  - water projects to control rivers and irrigation
  - manufacture/ trade of silk
  - caravan routes
  - established schools of ancient philosophies
  - decentralized government
    - feudal system --> land given to nobles who overtime become less dependent on king
    - warring states --> regional lords undermined aristocracy and became more powerful
  - Kongfuzi (confucius)
    - offered advice and wisdom
    - Hundred schools of thought --> yin/ yang; 5 elements
    - analects --> followers
    - family important to the state
  - Daoism
    - people should withdraw from hierarchy/ formality
    - Laozi --> created the Dao De Jing (foundational text)