Chapter 6: The experience of empire: The cultural turn and the impact of imperialism on the periphery.

The discourse approach

Discourse means to converse or hold forth on a subject

When academics talk of discourse, they mean the body language used to convey particular knowledge about a subject.

Foucault expanded the definition to include all meaningful utterances and texts that affect how one perceives and interacts with the external, real world.

He regarded individual discourses as sets of regulated statements that express a particular viewpoint about a subject.

He believed that the knowledge conveyed by a discourse is the result of power relations; only certain points of view posses the power to be heard.

Only certain individuals possess the right to speak authoritatively about a specific matter. E.g. In teaching – a teacher’s perspective carries more weight than a student.

These regulations affect how people interpret the world.

Marxist, Michel Pecheux gave his students the same economics text to read, the content was relatively impartial in regards to political ideology. But he told one half of his students that it was a left-wing interpretation, and the other half that it was right-wing. The students selectively read the text within the bounds that he had set them.

The Orientalism approach

In 1978, Edward Said published a critique of Western conceptionsof the Orient, entitled Orientalism.

He identified a discourse of Orientalism in many European, and colonial texts.

He argued that European authors had consistently described colonised countries and colonial subjects in a negative way in order to make their own countries seem civilised.

The Orient was defined by how it was perceived to differ from the West, and colonised people’s became ‘others’. – Argued that ‘Orient’ was an idea created by Europeans.

Colonial stereotypes legitimised exploitation and dehumanised colonial subjects.

The development of colonial discourse theory interpretation

Said’s work inspired many other individuals to explore how ‘colonial’ knowledge’ was produced, and how it was subsequently used.

Some academics began to argue that classifications such as the African ‘tribe’ and ‘Hindoo Caste’ were European inventions.

It was observed that the hierarchy of caste in India was strengthened under the British.

Descriptions of landscapes gave the impression that colonised territories were naturally designed to be exploited by colonial powers.

In comparison to Britain, such countries were described as ‘underdeveloped’ and ‘medieval’. Their progress was limited, and they were therefore ‘deficient’.

A further consequence of colonial discourse theory has been the move towards studying the history of subalterns – a name given to individuals and groups whose voices have been traditionally excluded from historical accounts.

Previously, when dealing with colonial subjects, historians tended to concentrate on elite figures and groups, such as Hindu Brahmins, who were taken to represent the entire Hindu community.

Critical analysis

Variety of western views

A number of critics have pointed out that there were many different Western conceptions of the Orient, not all were critical of indigenous culture.

Europeans differed in response to imperialism.

Importance of class

David Cannadine has argued that British colonial elite were more concerned with class than race; the Oriental elite held a higher social status than many working-class Europeans.

Occidentalism

A number of critics have pointed out that Said’s approach amounts to ’Occidentalism’ a term which generally refers to stereotypical and unflattering views of the west.

A true conception of the Orient?

Colonial writers have been judged on the premise that they misinterpret the ‘true’ conditions of colonial society.

Discourse assumes all descriptions of the real world are constrained by the ‘loaded’ knowledge encase within language.

Therefore, if logic were to be obeyed, colonial writings could only be judged against other discourses, rather than ‘truth’.

Critics claim many discourse theorists ignore this logic and claim their own work as ‘truth’.

Indigenous elites

Recent studies have demonstrated that classifications such as caste were altered but not invented by colonisers.

Hindu elites had attempted to strengthen inequalities based on caste long before the British became colonial rulers.

Discourse theorists: the colonised elite?

Many discourse theorists originate from the periphery, this seems to be responsible for their anger towards colonialism.

Critics point out that the vast majority of these anti-imperialist intellectuals come from families which prospered under colonialism, many were educated in Western schools and held posts in Western Unis.

Contemporary politics and selective readings

Much work on colonial discourse conducted in USA – racial and ethinc issues remain political issues.

Perhaps explains why such approaches have come to dominate.

Possible that contemporary concerns have created a particularly skewed version of imperial history.

Colonial experiences

European and nationalist approaches

Advantages and disadvantages of colonialism for locals has been discussed since inception of imperial rule.

Generally Europeans have seen colonialism more positively than indigenous on periphery.

Since independence, many on the periphery have been given greater freedom to challenge imperialism.

Criticism of colonial rule united people.

Patterns of work

Colonialism brought important changes to patterns of work on the periphery.

Often involved disruption to local culture.

British valued hard work and believed introduction of more strenuous labour would benefit the moral character of the indigenous.

Many Brits were critical of the ‘laziness’ of the indigenous.

Historians nowadays are more aware that groups in subordinate positions are likely to feign laziness and stupidity as they are relatively safe methods of rebelling.

Subsistence farmers and the global economy

The British wanted to Integrate colonial territories into the world economy.
Consequently, policymaker sought to encourage local people to produce goods for the global market - often accomplished through taxation.
In order to pay the taxes, farmers had to grow cash crops or send family in search of employment.
Taxation made a colony more self-sufficient.
The indiginous resented taxation - Sierra Leone Hut Tax sparked rebellion in 1898.
Source E - Mary Kingsley

Famine

Occured in India and E. Africa during second half of 19th C.
5 major drought-related famines in India 1860-1900 led to 14.5 million deaths.
British gov. critisiced by post-independence Indian Politicicians for not doing enough to alleviate famines. - Some blamed British officials for causing food shortages by encouraging cash crops which reduced home foods such as rice.
Famine commissions and a famine disaster fund were set up to help cope.

Technological progress

In non-self governing colonies, locals were resistent to technology such as railways and waterways - more worried about costs.
Sometimes viewed infrastructural development as an imposition from greedy businessmen in metropole such as Investment bankers, railway entrepreneurs and engineers.
Some contemporaries belived progress failed to have a positive effect on the periphery because indigenous could not use technology effectively.
Colonial attempts to improve river and canal transport in India were heavily criticised by Indian and Pakistani gov. following independence (1947).
Achievements seen as too little, too late.
It wasn't until the colonial development acts of 1929 and 1940 that British gov. financed colonial projects. Tech understanding was still limited, especiall with regard to irrigation.
Roads before 1920s were poor in non-self governing colonies which were mainly used by locals - supports view that colonial authorities prioritised development which benefitted the metropole and British consumers.

Competing with colonial settlers

The arrival of colonial settlers placed further economic pressures on locals - In S. Rhodesia, the Ndebele felt threatedened by white settlers in 1889 - conflict erupted in 1890s, whites were victorious.
Many Ndebele lost their land and were forced to labour for colonists on grain and tobacco farmes.
In Kenya, land was taken away from locals. A Kikuyu chief, Koinange Mbiyu travelled to London in 1931 and testified to a Parliamentary committee about the situation.

Domestic Slavery

Many African societies continued to practise forms of slavery until 1920s. It involved various forms of dependency and clientage.
British authorities disapproved but was permitted to continue as it was seen as essential to the mobilisation of African Labour.
The British sometimes suppressed domestic slavery for political reasons - in 1897, a British Mission to the Edo Kingdom of Benin was attacked.
The British sent a punitive expedition to the Edo capital which was deserted except for a few royal slaves the British freed to punish the Edo ruler.

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A2 OCR History on British Imperialism