How do sociologists define the concept of birth?

What has happened to the birth rate since 1900?

What is meant by 'baby booms'?

There are two factors determining the birth rate. What are they?

What is the total fertility rate (TFR)?

What has happened to the TFR?

The changes in TFR and birth rates show what?

One reason for the decline in birth rate is the changes that have occurred with regards to women's position. There were major changes in the position of women during the 20th century. List some:

What does Sarah Harper claim is the most important reasons for the long-term fall in birth and fertility rates, and why?

According to Harper, once a pattern of low fertility lasts for more than one generation, what begins to change?

What does the infant mortality rate (IMR) measure?

Harper argues that a fall in the IMR leads to a fall in the birth rate. Why does she believe this?

In 1900, what was the IMR? How does this compare to 2012?

During the first half of the 20th century, the IMR began to fall. This was for several reasons. Name some:

A third reason for the decline in birth rate is the fact that children are now an economic liability. What is meant by this?

Another reason for the decline in birth rate is child centredness. What is meant by this?

Changes in the number of babies born affects several aspects of society. Most obviously, family sizes will decrease. What will this reduce?

In addition, the dependency ratio will be affected. What is the dependency ratio, and why will it be affected?

Public services and policies will also be impacted. Why?

Finally, the average of the population will do what?

What is the death rate defined as?

What has happened to the death rate in the past century?

There are many reasons why the death rate declined during the 20th century. What does N. L. Tranter argue?

By the 1950s, the main cause of death changed from infectious diseases to 'diseases of affluence'. What is meant by this?

The decline in deaths from infection may be due to the population developing natural resistance, but it is more likely that social factors had a greater impact on infectious diseases. List the social factors that may have had influence:

According to Thomas McKeown, what accounts for up to half of the fall in death rates? However, what did he fail to explain?

Furthermore, smoking and diet has an impact on the death rate. What does Harper argue?

Finally, public health measures will have played a part in lowering the death rate. What is meant by this?

What does life expectancy refer to?

As death rates have fallen, life expectancy has increased. Give one reason for the lower average life expectancy in 1900:

Despite the overall reduction in the death rate and increase in life expectancy, there are still important class, gender and regional differences when it comes to how long a person can expect to live. Give an example for each factor:

The average age of the UK population is rising. One way of illustrating the changing age-profile of the population is through 'age pyramids'. What do these show?

What does Donald Hirsch note about age pyramids?

The ageing of the population is caused by three factors. What are they?

An ageing population will affect public services and policies. Why?

The ageing population has also led to an increase in one-person pensioner households. How many households now consist of pensioners living alone?

Most of the pensioners living in one-person households are women. Among the group aged 75+, there are twice as many women as men. What has this been described as?

Another area affected by the ageing population is the dependency ratio. Why?

While an increase in the number of old people raises the dependency ratio, what is this counterbalanced by?

What is meant by ageism?

One consequence of the ageing population is ageism. What is ageism a result of?

How does ageism towards elderly people show itself?

According to Age Concern, how many people have experienced ageism?

Chris Phillipson takes a marxist perspective when examining ageism. What does he argue?

In modern society, life is structured into fixed stages, such as childhood, adulthood, etc. Age allocation and age-related identities are now the norm. Why does this affect the elderly and their dependent status?

However, postmodernists argue that the orderly stages of life have broken down. Give examples that support this view:

In postmodern society, our consumption is key to our identities. What does Stephen Hunt state regarding this change?

Because identities are now created through consumption, the elderly have become a market for a range of body maintenance and rejuvenation products. What does this do to the ageist stereotypes found in modern society?

What are the two other features of postmodern society that also undermine ageism towards the elderly?

Which sociologist argues that while the orderly stages of life have broken down, inequalities such as gender and class remain important?

Many gender and class inequalities are linked to the individual's previous occupation. How?

According to Donald Hirsch, what needs to change to tackle the new problems posed by an ageing population?

According to Hirsch, what will be the main problem of an ageing population, and how could this be tackled?

There may also be an issue with regards to housing policy. What may it need to change to?

In addition to natural change, another factor affecting the size and age of the population is migration. What does 'migration' refer to?

Migration can be internal or international. What do 'immigration', 'emigration' and 'net migration' refer to?

From 1900 until WWII, who were the largest immigrant groups?

After WWII, who began arriving in the UK?

One consequence of immigration is a more ethnically diverse society. By 2011, ethnic minority groups accounted for 14% of the population. What has this resulted in?

From the mid-16th century to the 1980s, the UK was almost always a net exporter of people. What does this mean?

What are the main reasons for emigration related to?

What is meant by 'push factors'?

What is meant by 'pull factors'?

Recently, both immigration and emigration have increased. How does this affect the UK?

While there is a natural increase, with births exceeding deaths, births to UK born mothers remain low. Births to non-UK born mothers account for what percentage of all births?

Even with births exceeding deaths, births remain below the replacement level of 2.1 per woman. What does this mean?

How does immigration directly lower the average age of the population?

How does immigration indirectly lower the average age of the population?

Immigration effects the dependency ratio. How?

What is meant by 'globalisation'?

Globalisation is the result of many process. Name a few:

Globalisation produces rapid social changes, including global migration. What are the three trends in global migration?

What does acceleration refer to?

Differentiation refers to the types of migrants, of which there are many. Name a few:

Gobalisation has led to what Steven Vertovec calls 'super-diversity'. What does he mean by this?

Robin Cohen distinguishes three types of migrants. What are they?

Previously, most migrants were men, but now almost 50% all global migrants are women. What do Barbara Ehrenreich and Arlie Hochschild observe about the jobs these female migrants perform?

Women from poor countries carrying out care, domestic and sex work in western countries is a result of four trends. What are they?

According to Thomas Hylland Eriksen, globalisation has created what?

As a result of these back-and-forth movements, migrants are less likely to see themselves as belonging completely to one culture or country. What may they develop instead?

With increased global flows of migrants, migration has become an important political issue. What do countries now have?

Assimilation was the first state policy approach to immigration. What did it aim to do?

What problem do assimilation policies face?

What is multiculturalism?

Thomas Hylland Eriksen distinguishes between shallow diversity and deep diversity. What are they?

Since the 1960s, there was a move towards multiculturalism. However, what event caused this progress to stop, with politicians reverting back and demanding assimilation?

Stephen Castles claims that assimilation policies may be counterproductive. Why?

Assimilation can also encourage workers to blame migrants for social problems such as unemployment. What do Castles and Kosack believe benefits from this?