Training programs can eliminate pilot errors.

Commercial pilots routinely undergo additional training throughout their careers.

The number of airline crashes will decrease if pilot training programs focus on increasing actual flying time.

Lack of actual flying time is an important contributor to pilot error in commercial plane crashes.

Communication skills are not important to pilot training programs.

Biotechnology should be directed toward producing plants that do not require artificial fertilizer.

Fixed nitrogen is currently the only soil nutrient that must be supplied by artificial fertilizer for growing wheat crops.

There are no naturally occurring strains of wheat or other grasses that have Rhizobium bacteria living in their roots.

Legumes are currently the only crops that produce their own supply of fixed nitrogen.

Rhizobium bacteria living in the roots of wheat would produce fixed nitrogen.

The imported insects would not prove more damaging to the environment in the United States than are the fire ants themselves.

The predator insects from Brazil could survive in the ecological environment found in the United States.

The especially aggressive fire ants from the two-queen nests would not be able to destroy the Brazilian predator insects.

The predator insects would stop the increase of the ant population before the ants spread to states that are farther north.

The rate of increase of the fire-ant population would not exceed the rate at which the predator insects could kill the ants.

Any current attempts by agricultural researchers to develop higher-yielding potato strains are futile.

Strains of potatoes most commonly grown in Rosinia could not have produced the yields last year that they once did.

Agricultural researchers often find concrete solutions to practical problems when investigating seemingly unrelated questions.

Wide fluctuations in the size of the potato crop over a twenty-year period are not unusual.

Agricultural research in Rosinia is funded by government grants.

Banks are not insured by the government against default on the loans the banks make.

Private insurance companies do not have the resources to provide banks or individual with deposit insurance.

Banks do not always cover the cost of the deposit-insurance premiums by paying depositors lower interest rates on insured deposits than the banks would on uninsured deposits.

The government limits the insurance protection it provides by insuring accounts up to a certain legally defined amount only.

The government does not allow banks to offer some kinds of accounts in which deposits are not insured.

Dictionary editors are not professionally interested in words that are only rarely used.

Dictionary editors have exact numerical criteria for telling when a word has passed into common usage.

For a new idea to take hold, dictionary editors have to include the relevant word or words in their dictionaries.

As a word passes into common usages, its meaning does not undergo any severe distortions in the process.

Words denoting new ideas tend to be used before the ideas denoted are understood.

Academics respect only people who hold doctoral degrees.

All of this university's professors have obtained doctoral degrees.

At this university, every professor who holds a doctoral degree in computer science really knows about computers.

All academics who hold doctoral degrees are respected by their academic colleagues.

Among this university's staff members with doctoral degrees, only those in the computer science department really know about computers.

Universities are the only institutions that have an obligation to guarantee intellectual freedom.

Most inventions by university faculty members would be profitable if patented.

Publication of reports on research is the only practical way to disseminate information concerning new discoveries.

Universities have a motive to suppress information concerning discoveries by their faculty members will occasionally act on that motive.

If the inventions of the university faculty member are not patented by that university, then they will be patented by the faculty member instead.

unless medical research findings are brought to peer review by a medical journal, peer review will not occur

anyone who does not serve on medical review panel does not have the necessary knowledge and expertise to evaluate medical research finding

the general public does not have access to the medical journals in which research findings are published

all medical research findings are subjected to prepublication peer review

peer review panels are sometimes subject to political and professional pressures that can make their judgments less than impartial

whether a piece of information is or is not newsworthy can raise ethical dilemmas for journalists

there are circumstances in which it would be ethically wrong for a journalist to go to press with legitimately acquired, newsworthy information

the most serious professional dilemmas that a journalist is likely to face are not ethical dilemmas

there are no ethical dilemmas that a journalist is likely to face that would not be conclusively resolved by an adequate system of journalistic ethics

For a system of journalistic ethics to be adequate it must be able to provide guidance in every case in which a journalist must make a professional decision

Viewers of network television news programs would be interested in seeing advocates of opposing views present their positions at length.

Since it is not possible to present striking images that would symbolize events for viewers, and since images hold sway over words in television, television must oversimplify.

It is not possible for television to present public issues in a way that allows for the nuanced presentation of diverse views and a good-faith interchange between advocates of opposing views.

In network television news reports, it is not usual for a reporter to offer additional factual evidence and background information to develop a story in which opposing views are presented briefly by their advocates.

Television news reporters introduce more of their own biases into news stories than do newspaper reporters.

Performances based on an actors own experience of emotional states are more likely to affect an audience's emotions than are performances based on imitations of the behaviors generally associated with those emotional states.

The behavior that results when a Method actor tells a certain emotion will conform to the behavior that is generally associated by audiences with that emotion.

Realism is an essential criterion for evaluating the performances of both traditional actors and Method actors.

Traditional actors do not aim to produce performances that are realistic representations of a characters emotional states.

In order to portray a character, a Method actor need not have had experiences identical to those of the character portrayed.

cancer patients never abuse morphine

cancer patients often become dependent on morphine

cancer patients who are dependent on morphine are addicted to it

cancer patients who abuse a drug are dependent on it

cancer patients cannot depend on morphine without abusing it

relatively harmless chemicals do not interact with each other in the water to form harmful compounds

there is a swift flow of water in the waterway that ensures rapid dispersion of chemicals discharged

there are no chemicals for which discharge into waterways is entirely prohibited

those who receive the permits do not always discharge the entire quantity of chemicals that the permits allow

the danger of chemical pollution of waterways is to be evaluated in terms of human health only and not in terms of the health of both human beings and wildlife

The apples that the cafeteria sells are not thoroughly washed after harvest but before reaching the cafeteria.

Most pesticides that are sprayed on fruit before harvest leave a greasy residue on the fruit.

Many of the cafeteria's patrons are unaware that the cafeteria does not wash the apples it sells.

Only pesticides that leave a greasy residue on fruit can be washed off.

Fruits other than apples also arrive at the cafeteria in a greasy condition.

Known fossils of early land animals include fossils of animals that lived relatively soon after the first emergence of land animals.

Fossils from the late Silurian period represent only a small number of the animal species that were alive at that time.

No plants were established on land before the late Silurian period.

No present-day species of aquatic animal is descended from a species of animal that once lived on land.

All animals alive in the late Silurian period lived either exclusively on land or exclusively in the water.

a company that pursues its debtors on its own typically collects more than 15 percent of the total amount of the long-outstanding bills that it is owed

the cost to a company of pursuing its debtors on its own for payment of long-outstanding bills does not exceed 15 percent of the total amount of those bills

collection agencies that are assigned bills for collection by companies are unsuccessful in collecting, on average, only 15 percent of the total amount of those bills.

at least 15 percent of the customers that owe money to companies eventually pay their bills whether or not those bills are assigned to a collection agency

unless most of the customers of a company pay their bills, that company in the long run will not be profitable.

Standardization of computer operating system software has increased computer compatibility among different businesses.

Correcting any damage resulting from an invasion by a computer virus program is more expensive than preventing the damage.

It is not costly for a business to maintain incompatible computer operating systems.

There are other kinds of destructive computer programs that do not depend on inter-computer links.

Not all businesses need to share date among their internal computer systems.

dark-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a dark, rocky bottom and many predators

dark-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a white, sandy bottom

light-shelled snails in an inlet with much wave action and a dark, rocky bottom

light-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a dark, rocky bottom and many predators

light-shelled snails in a calm inlet with a white, sandy bottom and many predators

The preparation of computer-fraud cases takes much more time than is required for average fraud cases, and the productivity of prosecutors is evaluated by the number of good cases made.

In most police departments, officers are rotated through different assignments every two or three years, a shorter time than it takes to become proficient as a computer-crime investigator.

The priorities of local police departments, under whose jurisdiction most computer crime falls, are weighted toward visible street crime that communities perceive as threatening.

Computer criminals have rarely been sentenced to serve time in prison, because prisons are overcrowded with violent criminals and drug offenders.

The many police officers who are untrained in computers often inadvertently destroy the physical evidence of computer crime.

The public library was located between Glenwood and Redville before being moved to its current location in central Redville.

The area covered by central Glenwood is approximately the same size as that covered by central Redville.

The building that is available in Glenwood is smaller than an alternative building that is available in Redville.

Many of the people who use the public library do not live in either Glenwood or Redville.

The distance that people currently walk to get to the library is farther than what is generally considered walking distance.

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The airlines should be required, when buying new planes, to buy only planes with unrestricted access to emergency exits.

The airlines should not be permitted to increase further the number of lights in order to offset the decrease in the number of seats on each aircraft.

Airport authorities should be required to streamline their passenger check-in procedures to accommodate the increased number of passengers served by the airlines.

Airport authorities should be required to refine security precautions by making them less conspicuous without making them less effective.

The airlines should not be allowed to increase the ticket price for each passenger to offset the decrease in the number of seats on each aircraft.

are already operating at an occupancy rate approaching 100 percent year-round

could not have been sited any more attractively than they are even in the absence of land-use laws

have to contend with upward pressures on the cost of labor which stem from an incipient shortage of trained personnel

already provide a level of luxury that is at the limits of what even wealthy patrons are prepared to pay for

have shifted from serving mainly Bellarian tourists to serving foreign tourists traveling in organized tour groups

In areas that were inhabited by ancient native North American peoples, arrangements of stones have been found that make places where sunlight falls precisely on the spring solstice, an astronomically determined date.

The straight lines are consistent with sight lines to points on the horizon where particular astronomical events could have been observed at certain plausible dates, and the figure could represent a constellation.

The straight-line pattern is part of a large connected complex of patterns of straight-line rays connecting certain points with one another.

Native Central American cultures, such as that of the Maya, left behind elaborate astronomical calendars that were engraved on rocks.

There is evidence that the bird figure was made well before the straight-line pattern.

Over the past decade the annual consumption of imported oil has increased more rapidly than that of domestic oil in the United States.

Conservation measures have lowered the rate of growth of domestic oil consumption from what it was a decade ago.

Oil exploration in the United States has slowed due to increased concern over the environmental impact of such exploration.

The price of domestically produced oil has fallen substantially over the past decade.

Due to technological advances over the last decade, much oil previously considered unextractable is now considered extractable.

Many parents are defying the law by not using safety seats for their children.

Children are more likely to make automobile trips now than they were before the introduction of the safety seat.

The high cost of child safety seats has caused many parents to delay purchasing them.

The car safety seat was not designed to prevent all types of injuries, so it is not surprising that some injuries are sustained.

The protection afforded by child safety seats depends on their being used properly, which many parents fail to do.

often the subjects who receive the drug being tested develop symptoms that the experimenters recognize as side effects of the physiologically active drug

subjects who believe they are receiving the drug being tested often display improvements in their conditions regardless of whether what is administered to them is physiologically active or not

in general, when the trial is intended to establish the experimental drug's safety rather than its effectiveness, all of the subjects are healthy

when a trial runs a long time, few of the experimenters will work on it from inception to conclusion

the people who are subjects for clinical trials must, by law, be volunteers and must be informed of the possibility that they will receive a placebo

During times of inflation consumers save more money than they do in noninflationary periods.

There is usually a lag between the leading economic indicators first signaling the onset of an inflationary period and consumers’ recognition of its onset.

No generalization that describes human behavior will be true of every type of human behavior.

If significant numbers of consumers are unable to make purchases, prices will eventually fall but salaries will not be directly affected.

Consumers’ purchasing power decreases during periods of protracted inflation since salaries do not keep pace with prices.

The restorers believe that da Volterra stripped away all previous layers of paint before he painted his own additions to the Sistine Chapel.

Because da Volterra used a type of pigment that is especially sensitive to light, the additions to the Sistine Chapel that ad Volterra painted have relatively muted colors.

Da Volterra’s additions were painted in a style that was similar to the style used by Michelangelo.

Michelangelo is famous primarily for his sculptures and only secondarily for his paintings, whereas da Volterra is known exclusively for his paintings.

Da Volterra’s work is considered by certain art historians to be just as valuable as the work of additions to Michelangelo’s work.

The suicide rate is influenced by many psychological, interpersonal, and societal factors during any given historical period.

October and November have almost always had relatively high suicide rates, even during the 1920s and 1930s.

The suicide rate in October and November of 1929 was considerably higher than the average for those months during several preceding and following years.

During the years surrounding the stock market crash, suicide rates were typically lower at the beginning of any calendar year than toward the end of that year.

Because of seasonal differences, the number of suicides in October and November of 1929 would not be expected to be the same as those for other mont

No likely mechanism of contamination involving percolating groundwater would have affected the deeper samples from the site without affecting the uppermost sample.

Not every application of the carbon-dating procedure has led to results that have been generally acceptable to scientists.

There is no evidence that people were using coal for fuel at any time when the deepest layer might have been laid down.

No sample in the series, when retested by the carbon-dating procedure, was assigned an earlier date than that assigned to a sample from a layer above it.

No North American site besides the one in Pennsylvania has ever yielded a sample to which the carbon-dating procedure assigned a date that was comparably ancient.

Large concentrations of dinosaur nests with fossil eggs found in Alberta indicate that at least some species of dinosaurs congregated in large groups during some part of their lives.

Dinosaur remains indicate that some species of dinosaur could have migrated in herds over wide ranges, so that they could have traveled to escape the local effects of certain catastrophes.

Legends from many cultures, such as the Greek legend that Cadmus raised an army by sowing dragons' teeth in the ground, show that various accident peoples worldwide were familiar with the fossils of dinosaurs.

In the Gobi desert in China, where now only small animals can eke out an existence, fossil dinosaur skeletons 27 feet long were found in circumstances indicating that the climate there was as dry when the dinosaurs lived as it is now.

The fossil record in Montano from below the layer of extraterrestrial dust shows a diminution over time in dinosaur species from 35 to 13, and dinosaur teeth found above the dust layer show a diminution in species from 13 to 5.

Many businesses whose presence in the city is beneficial to the city’s taxpayers would relocate outside the city if public-transit fare were more expensive.

By providing commuters with economic incentives to drive to work, higher transit fares would worsen air pollution in Greenville and increase the cost of maintaining the city’s streets.

Increasing transit fares would disadvantage those residents of the city whose low incomes make them exempt from city taxes, and all city councilors agree that these residents should be able to take advantage of city-run services.

Voters in the city, many of whom benefit from the low transit fares, are strongly opposed to increasing local taxes.

People who work in Greenville and earn wages above the nationally mandated minimum all pay the city wage tax of 5 percent

Prior to the recent recession, middle-income households owed enough debt that they had begun to decrease spending.

The total value of the economy's household debt is exceeded by the total value of assets held by households.

Low-income households somewhat decreased their spending during the recent recession.

During a recession the affluent usually borrow money only in order to purchase assets

Household debt is the category of debt least likely to affect the economy.

predictions based on orthodox medicine have sometimes failed, as when a patient has recovered despite the judgment of doctors that an illness is fatal

alternative medicine relies on concepts of the body and of the nature of healing that differ from those on which orthodox medicine is based

alternative medicine provides hope to those for whom orthodox medicine offers no cure

a patient’s belief in the medical treatment the patient is receiving can release the body’s own chemical painkillers, diminish allergic reactions, and promote healing

many treatments used for a time by orthodox medicine have later been found to be totally ineffective

Water rationing was imposed in the city in three of the last five years.

A small part of the city's water supply is obtained from deep underground water systems that are not reached by rainwater

The water company's capacity to pump water to customers has not kept up with the increased demand created by population growth in the metropolitan area.

The long-range weather forecast predicts lower-than-average temperatures for this summer.

In most years the city receives less total precipitation in the summer than it receives in any other season.

There are other means besides knives, such as guns or poison, that can be used to accomplish homicide by a person who intends to cause the death of another.

It is impossible to know how many unpremeditated assaults occur within the family, since many are not reported to the authorities.

Knives are used in other homicides besides those that result from unpremeditated assaults within the family

The argument assumes without justification that the knives used to commit homicide are generally purchased as part of a deliberate plan to commit murder or to inflict grievous harm on a family member.

If the potentially lethal knives referred to are ordinary household knives, such knives were common before the rise in the homicide rate; but if they are weaponry, such knives are not generally available in households.

Courts routinely use means other than handwriting analysis to provide evidence of a person’s character.

Many people can provide two samples of their handwriting so different that only a highly trained professional could identify them as having been written by the same person.

A licensing board would inevitably refuse to grant licenses to some responsible handwriting analysts for reasons having nothing to do with their reliability.

The only handwriting analysts who claim that handwriting provides reliable evidence of a person’s character are irresponsible.

The number of handwriting analysts who could conform to professional standards set by a licensing board is very small.

The true annual rate of earnings on an interest-bearing account is the annual rate of interest less the annual rate of inflation. Consequently, if the rate of inflation drips, the rate of interest can be reduced by an equal amount without there being a change in the true rate of earnings.

For retail food stores, the Polar freezer, unlike the Arctic freezer, provides a consistent temperature that allows the store to carry premium frozen foods. Thus, if electricity rates fell, a lower volume of premium-food sales could justify choosing the Polar freezer.

With the Roadmaker, a crew can repave a mile of decayed road in less time than with the competing model, which is, however, much less expensive. Reduced staffing levels made possible by the Roadmaker eventually compensate for its higher price. Therefore, the Roadmaker is especially advantageous where average wages are low.

The improve strain the Northland apple tree bears fruit younger and lives longer than the standard strain. The standard strain does grow larger at maturity, but to allow for this, standard trees must be spaced farther apart. Therefore, new plantings should all be of the improved strain.

Stocks pay dividends, which vary from year to year depending on profits made. Bonds pay interest, which remains constant from year to year. Therefore, since the interest earned on bonds does not decrease when economic conditions decline, investors interested in a reliable income should choose bonds.

Certain governments subsidize theaters in order to attract foreign tourists. But tourists rarely choose a destination for the theatrical performances it has to offer.

Certain governments restrict imports in order to keep domestic producers in business. But, since domestic producers do not have to face the full force of foreign competition, some domestic producers are able to earn inordinately high profits.

Certain governments build strong armed forces in order to forestall armed conflict, but in order to maintain the sort of discipline and morale that keeps armed forces strong, those forces must be used in actual combat periodically.

Certain governments reduce taxes on business in order to stimulate private investment. But any investment is to some extent a gamble, and new business ventures are not always as successful as their owners hoped.

Certain governments pass traffic laws in order to make travel safer. But the population-driven growth in volumes of traffic often has the effect of making travel less safe despite the passage of new traffic laws.

Surely Centreville should oppose adoption of the regional planning commission's new plan since it is not in Centreville's interest, even though it might be in the interest of some towns in the region.

The school board should support the plan for the new high school since this plan was recommended by the well-qualified consultants whom the school board hired at great expense.

Of the two budget proposals, the mayor's is clearly preferable to the city council's, since the mayor's budget addresses the needs of the city as a whole, whereas the city council is protecting special interests.

Nomura is clearly a better candidate for college president than Miller, since Nomura has the support of the three deans who best understand the president's job and with whom the president will have to work most closely.

The planned light-rail system will clearly serve suburban areas well, since its main opponent is the city government, which has always ignored the needs of the suburbs and sought only to protect the interests of the city.

All the city's solid-waste collection vehicles acquired after 1988 have a large capacity than any of those acquired before 1988. This vehicle has the largest capacity of any the city owns, so it must have been acquired after 1988.

The soccer players on the blue team are generally taller than the players on the gold team. Since Henri is a member of the blue team, he is undoubtedly taller than most of the members of the gold team.

This tomato is the largest of this year's crop. Since the tomatoes in the
experimental plot are on average larger than those grown in the regular plots,this tomato must have been grown in the experiment plot .

Last week's snowstorm in Toronto was probably an average storm for the area. It was certainly heavier than any snowstorm known to have occurred in Miami, but any average snowstorm in Toronto leaves more snow than ever falls in Miami.

Lawn mowers powered by electricity generally require less maintenance than do lawn mowers powered by gasoline. This lawn mower is powered by gasoline, so it will probably require a lot of maintenance.

a medical researcher who feels a moral obligation not to claim sole credit for work that was performed in part by someone else confronting another researcher who feels no such moral obligation

a manufacturer who feels a moral obligation to recall potentially dangerous products confronting a consumer advocate who feels morally obliged to expose product defects

an investment banker who believes that governments are morally obliged to regulate major industries confronting an investment banker who holds that governments have a moral obligation not to interfere with market forces

an architect who feels amoral obligation to design only energy-efficient buildings confronting, as a potential client, a corporation that believes its primary moral obligation is to maximize shareholder profits

a health inspector who feels morally obliged to enforce restrictions on the number of cats a householder may keep confronting a householder who, feeling morally obliged to keep every stray that comes along, has over twice that number of cats

Representing the school board, Marcia Barthes presented to the school's principal a list of recently elected school board members. Since only an elected member of the school board can act as its representative. Ms. Barthe's name undoubtedly appears on that list.

Alan Caldalf, who likes being around young children, has decided to become a pediatrician. Since the one characteristic common to all good pediatricians is that they like young children, Mr. Caldalf will undoubtedly be a very good pediatrician.

Jorge Diaz is a teacher at a music school nationally known for the excellence of its conducting faculty. Since Mr. Diaz has recently been commended for the excellence of his teaching, he is undoubtedly a member of the school's conducting faculty.

Ula Borg, who has sold real estate for Arcande Realty for many years, undoubtedly sold fewer houses last year that she had the year before since the number of houses sold last year by Arcande Realty is far lower than the number sold the previous year.

The members of the local historical society unanimously support designating the First National Bank building a historical landmark. Since Evelyn George is a member of that society, she undoubtedly favors according landmark status to the city hall as well.

(A) It would be more convenient for Dominique to take a bus to school than to take the subway, since the bus stops closer to her house than does the subway and, unlike the subway, the bus goes directly to the school.

Joshua’s interest would be better served by taking the bus to get to his parent’s house rather than by taking an airplane, since his primary concern is to travel as cheaply as possible and taking the bus is less expensive than going by airplane.

Belinda will get to the concert more quickly by subway than by taxi since the concert takes place on a Friday evening and on Friday evenings traffic near the concert hall is exceptionally heavy.

Anita would benefit financially by taking the train to work rather than driving her car, since when she drives she has to pay parking fees and the daily fee for parking a car is higher than a round-trip train ticket.

It would be to Fred’s advantage to exchange his bus tickets for train tickets since he needs to arrive at his meeting before any of the other participants and if he goes by bus at least one of the other participants will arrive first.

The only dogs in the show were poodles and they were all black poodles. So all the dogs in the show were black.

All the buildings on the block were tall. The only buildings on the block were office buildings and residential towers. So all the office buildings on the block were tall buildings.

All the primates in the zoo were gorillas. The only gorillas in the zoo were small gorillas. Thus the only primates in the zoo were small primates.

The only fruit in the kitchen was pears but the pears were not ripe. Thus none of the fruit in the kitchen was ripe.

All the grand pianos here are large. All the grand pianos here are heavy. Thus everything large is heavy.

It fails to specify the many reasons younger people have for saving money, and it
fails to identify which of those reasons is the strongest.

It assumes that a negative savings rate - the result of the average household's
spending all of its after-tax income as well as some of its existing savings - cannot ever come about in any nation.

It fails to cite statistics showing that the average age of the population of certain nations is rising.

It only takes into account the comparative number of reasons older and younger people, respectively, have for saving, and not the comparative strength of those reasons.

It uses after-tax income as the base for computing the national savings rate without establishing by argument that after-tax income is a more appropriate base than before-tax income.

It presupposes that public opinion can be manipulated indefinitely, without the public’s becoming aware of that manipulation.

It refers to past and present events that do not have a causal connection with public support of the budget.

It assumes as fact what it seeks to establish by reasoning.

It fails to give any reason for the judgment it reaches.

It hinges on the term “adequate,” the precise meaning of which requires reevaluation in the new context.

The labor of analyzing peculiarities of language both in the work of a known poet and in a poem of unknown authorship would not be undertaken unless other evidence already suggested that the poem of unknown authorship was written by the known poet.

A peculiarity of language that might be used as an identifying mark is likely to be widely scattered in the work of a poet, so that a single poem not known to have been written by that poet might not include that peculiarity.

A peculiarity of language in a poem of unknown authorship could be evidence either that the poem was written by the one author known to use that peculiarity or that the peculiarity was not unique to that author.

Minor peculiarities of language contribute far less to the literary effect of any poem than such factors as poetic form, subject matter, and deliberately chosen wording.

A poet’s use of some peculiarities of language might have been unconscious in some poems and conscious in other poems, and the two uses would be indistinguishable to scholars at a later date.

It relies on the assumption that a criticism can legitimately by dismissed as unwarranted if it is offended by someone who had previously displayed questionable judgment

It ignores the fact that people can agree about something even though what they agree about is not the case.

It calls into question the intellectual integrity of the critic in order to avoid having to address the grounds on which the criticism is based

It takes for granted that a whole story will have a given characteristics if each of its parts has that characteristics

It attempts to justify its conclusion by citing reasons that most people would find plausible only if they were already convinced that the conclusion was true

The position being argued against is redefined unfairly in order to make it an easier target.

Psychotherapy is unfairly criticized for having a single goal, rather than having many complex goals.

No allowance is made for the fact that the practice or results of psychotherapy might run counter to its goals.

The goals of psychotherapy are taken to justify any means that are used to achieve those goals.

It offers no argument to show that moral coercion is always undesirable.

relies on fear rather than on argument to persuade the neighborhood association to reject the policy advocated by Saunders’ opponents

fails to establish that there is anyone who could qualify for city funds who would be interested in buying and rehabilitating the houses

mistakenly equates an absence of vocal public dissent with the presence of universal public support

offers no evidence that the policy advocated by Saunders’ opponents would not have succeeded if it had been given the chance

does not specify the precise nature of the threat to neighborhood safety supposedly posed by the vandalized houses

It overlooks the possibility that not all those who fail to speak out on issues of nuclear power are necessarily opposed to it.

It assumes without warrant that the qualities enabling a person to be elected to public office confer on that person a grasp of the scientific principles on which technical decisions are based.

It fails to establish that a consistent and outspoken opposition is necessarily an informed opposition.

It leads to the further but unacceptable conclusion that any project favored by Mayor Smith should be sanctioned simply on the basis of her having spoken out in favor of it.

It gives no indication of either the basis of Mayor Smith’s former opposition to nuclear power plant construction or the reasons for her support for the Littletown project

attempting to justify a rule of conduct on the grounds that it confers benefits on all of the parties involved

concluding that a definition is fully applicable to a situation when it is known only that the situation conforms partially to that definition

speaking only in abstract terms about matters that involve contingencies and that must be judged on a case-by-case basis

confusing the type of mental or emotional activity in which an individual can engage with the mental or emotional states that can characterize groups of individuals

treating an issue that requires resolution through political processes as if it were merely a matter of opinion

does not consider that new surgical procedures might be found to be intrinsically more harmful than the best treatment previously available

ignores the possibility that the challenged proposal is deliberately crude in a way designed to elicit criticism to be used in refining the proposal

assumes that a surgeon's skills remain unchanged throughout the surgeon's professional life

describes a dissimilarity without citing any scientific evidence for the existence of that dissimilarity

rejects a proposal presumably advanced in good faith without acknowledging any such good faith

the results of the analysis are interpreted as indicating that the use of titanium as an ingredient in fifteenth-century ink both was, and was not, extremely restricted

if the technology that makes it possible to detect titanium in printing ink has only recently become available, it is unlikely that printers or artists in the fifteenth century would know whether their ink contained titanium or not

it is unreasonable to suppose that determination of the date and location of a document's printing or drawing can be made solely on the basis of the presence or absence of a single element in the ink used in the document

both the B-36 Bible and the Vinland Map are objects that can be appreciated on their own merits whether or not the precise date of their creation or the identity of the person who made them is known

the discovery of titanium in the ink of the Vinland Map must have occurred before titanium was discovered in the ink of the Gutenberg Bible and the B-36 Bible

ignores the possibility of the scanner’s failing to signal an alert when the luggage does contain an explosive

draws a general conclusion about reliability on the basis of a sample that is likely to be biased

ignores the possibility of human error on the part of the scanner’s operator once the scanner has alerted him or her

fails to acknowledge the possibility that the scanner will not be equally sensitive to all kinds of explosives

substitutes one group for a different group in the statement of a percentage

presupposing that there are no good reasons for restricting the use of outdoor advertising in Penglai

assuming without giving justification that the outdoor advertising increased market share by some means other than by diverting trade from competing businesses

ignoring the question of whether the government’s survey of the island could be objective

failing to establish whether the market-share advantage enjoyed by businesses employing outdoor advertising was precisely proportionate to the amount of advertising

disregarding the possibility that the government’s proposed restrictions are unconstitutional

accepts the reliability of the cited statistics on the authority of an unidentified government official

ignores the fact that in nearly one quarter of these accidents following the recommendation would not have improved passenger' safety

does not indicate the criteria by which an accident is classified as "relatively minor"

provides no information about the percentage of all small airplane flights during which the pilot whistles at some time during that flight

fails to specify the percentage of all small airplane flights that involve relatively minor accidents

drawing a conclusion on the basis of evidence that provides equally strong support for a competing conclusion

assuming without warrant that if one thing cannot occur without another thing's already having occurred, then the earlier thing cannot occur without bringing about the later thing

confusing evidence that a given outcome on one occasion was brought about in a certain way with evidence that the same outcome on a different occasion was brought about in that way

basing its conclusion on evidence that is almost entirely irrelevant to the point at issue

treating evidence that a given action contributed to bringing about a certain effect as though that evidence established that the given action by itself was sufficient to bring about that effect

It offers no evidence that the "safer'" alternative production site actually complies with any of the laws mentioned.

It concedes a point regarding weapons research laboratories that undermines its conclusion about weapons production plants.

It relies on evidence that does not directly address the issue of wasteful spending.

It confuses necessary expenditures for research with wasteful spending on weapons

It fails to establish that research laboratories and weapons production plants are similar enough to be meaningfully compared

allows moral issues to be a consideration in presenting evidence about matters of fact

dismisses moral considerations on the grounds that only matters of fact are relevant

labels the program as "controversial" instead of discussing the issues that give rise to controversy

asserts that the rehabilitation of criminals is not a moral issue

relies on evidence drawn from a sample that there is reason to believe is unrepresentative

mistakes something that is necessary to bring about a situation for something that in itself is enough to bring about that situation

fails to take into account the possibility that not everyone wants to gain a thorough understanding of himself or herself

blames people for something for which they cannot legitimately be held responsible

makes use of the inherently vague term “self-understanding” without defining that term

draws a conclusion that simply restates a claim given in support of that conclusion

It falsely identifies the motives of those who have criticized the wetlands-protection bill with the motives of all those who are opposed to conservation.

It does not adequately recognize the possibility that the definition of the word “wetlands” determines the impact of the legislation.

It assumes without justification that those who criticized the wetlands-protection bill stand to profit if the bill is defeated.

It fails to provide a defense for a less restrictive definition of “wetlands.”

It attempts to defend the credibility of the author of the bill rather than defending the bill itself.

attempts to extract a general rule from a specific case

extracts an erroneous principle from a commonly held belief

attacks the civil libertarians character instead of the argument

relies on an irrelevant reason for rejecting the civil libertarian's argument

uses hyperbolic inflammatory language that obscures the issue at hand

He treats his own experience and the experiences of other members of his own family as though they have more weight as evidence than do the experiences of other people.

He does not distinguish between the quality and the quantity of the books that adults read to Emory when Emory was a child.

He overlooks the well-known fact that not all reading is equally relaxing.

He fails to establish that the claim made by this particular educator accurately reflects the position held by the majority of educators.

He attempts to refute a general claim by reference to nonconforming cases, although the claim is consistent with the occurrence of such cases.

take into account instances of respondents dropping out that occurred before the respondents reached high school

ask residents whether they had completed their high school work in fewer than the usual number
of years

distinguish between residents who had attended the city's schools and those who had
received their schooling elsewhere

predict the effect of the information contained in the report on future high school dropout rates for the city

consider whether a diploma from the city's schools signaled the same level of achievement
over time

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Evelyn’s headache pain will be relieved, but Jane’s will not.

Evelyn’s headache pain will be relieved more quickly than Jane’s.

Evelyn’s headache will be relieved at least as quickly as Jane’s.

Jane’s headache pain will be relieved at the same time as is Evelyn’s.

Jane will be taking Danaxil for relief from headache pain.

No single brand of microwave popcorn accounts for a large share of microwave food product sales.

There are more brands of microwave popcorn on the market than there are of any other microwave food product.

By volume, more microwave popcorn is sold than is conventional popcorn.

More money is spent on microwave food products that take three minutes or less to cook than on microwave food products that take longer to cook.

Of the total number of microwave food products on the market, most are microwave popcorn products.

Even slight deviations from the proper consistency for ice cream sharply impair its flavor.

Cost considerations favor sacrificing consistency over sacrificing flavor.

It would not be cost effective to develop a new device to maintain the constancy of freezer temperatures.

Stabilizers function well only at very low freezer temperatures.

Very low, stable freezer temperatures allow for the best possible consistency and flavor of ice cream.

people who have birthdays or other anniversaries on December 30 or 31

employed people whose strict religious observances require that they refrain from working every seventh day

school systems that require students to attend classes a specific number of days each year

employed people who have three-day breaks from work when holidays are celebrated on Mondays or Fridays

people who have to plan events several years before those events occur

An infant should never be held morally responsible for an action that infant has performed.

There are certain commonly performed actions for which no one performing those actions should ever be held morally responsible.

Adults who claim that they have no control over the treatment they are receiving should often be held at least partially responsible for being so treated.

If a given action is within a certain person’s control that person should be held morally.

No adult should be held morally responsible for every action he or she performs.

If certain decision makers’ statements are quoted accurately and at length, the content of the quote could nonetheless be greatly at variance with the decision eventually make.

Certain decision makers do not know which ideas they do not really believe in until after they have presented a variety of ideas to their advisers

If certain decision makers dismiss an idea out of hand, it must be because its weaknesses are more pronounced than any strong points it may have.

Certain decision makers proceed in a way that makes it likely that they will frequently decide in favor of ideas in which they do not believe.

If certain decision makers’ advisers know the actual beliefs of those they advise, those advisers will give better advice than they would if they did not know those beliefs.

the rate of inflation has risen

the investment in question is becoming less profitable

the investment in question is less profitable than the most profitable investment available

the rate of return on the most profitable investment available has declined

there has been a change in which particular investment happens to be the most profitable available

As emission standards become more stringent, automakers will increasingly cooperate with each other in the area of emission control.

Car engines will be radically redesigned so as to do away with the need for cleaning the electronic ignition sensors.

There will be a marked shift toward smaller, lighter cars that will have less powerful engines but will use their fuel more efficiently.

The solvents developed to replace chlorofluorocarbons in car engines will be only marginally less effective than the chlorofluorocarbons themselves.

Something other than the cleansers for electronic ignition sensors will make a relatively greater contribution to meeting emission standards than at present.

Last year's official estimate was probably not much different from the official estimate ten years ago.

The number of commercial vessels fishing for cod in the Grand Banks has increased substantially over the past decade.

The sampling-based estimate is more accurate than the estimate based on commercial tonnage in that the data on which it relies is less likely to be inaccurate.

The once-yearly sampling by research vessels should be used as the sole basis for arriving at the official estimate of the stock of cod.

Twenty years ago, the overall stock of cod in the Grand Banks was officially estimated to be much larger than it is estimated to be today.

If the manufacturers in one country raise their prices, it is because they have squeezed their foreign competitors out of the global market.

If manufacturers in one country have been squeezed out of the global market, this shows that their foreign competitors have adopted new technologies more rapidly than they have.

If a country's foreign competitors can lower their production costs more rapidly than the country's own manufacturers can, then their foreign competitors must have adopted new manufacturing techniques.

If a country's manufacturers adopt new technologies at the same rate as their foreign competitors, neither group will be able to squeeze the other out of the global market

If a country's manufacturers can lower their prices as rapidly as their foreign competitors can, this shows that they adopt new technology at least as fast as their foreign competitors do.

The members of a single class of organisms that inhabit the same environment must be identical in all their external body features.

The members of a single class of organisms must exhibit one or more similar external body features that differentiate that class from all other classes of organisms.

It is only as a result of adaptation to similar environments that one class of organisms develops external body features similar to those of another class of organisms.

An organism does not necessarily belong to a class simply because the organism has one or more external body features similar to those of members of that class.

Whenever two classes of organisms share the same environment, members of one class will differ from members of the other class in several external body features.

the ages of the trees in the stand do not differ from each other by much more than the length of time it takes a white pine to grow to maturity

the land on which the stand is now growing had been cleared of all trees at the time when the first of the white pines started growing

competition among the trees in the stand for sunlight will soon result in some trees' dying and the stand thus becoming thinner

other species of trees will soon begin to colonize the stand, eventually replacing all of the white pines

any differences in the heights of the trees in the stand are attributable solely to differences in the ages of the trees

The new law will require that doctors, when seeing a patient in their office, must be ready to produce the patient's records immediately, not just ready to retrieve them.

The task of retrieving and returning files would fall to the lowest-paid member of a doctor's office staff.

Any patients who asked to see their medical records would also insist on having details they did not understand explained to them.

The new law does not rule out that doctors may charge patients for extra expenses incurred specifically in order to comply with the new law.

Some doctors have all allowing their patients access to their medical records, but those doctors' patients took no advantage of this policy.

The cost of producing electric power at traditional plants has increased over the past 20 years.

Twenty years ago, traditional power plants were producing 10 times more electric power than were photovoltaic plants.

None of the recent technological advances in producing electric power at photovoltaic plants can be applied to producing power at traditional plants.

Twenty years ago, the cost of producing electric power at photovoltaic plants was less than 20 times the cost of producing power at traditional plants.

The cost of producing electric power at photovoltaic plants is expected to decrease further, while the cost of producing power at traditional plants is not expected to decrease.

All projects in a bureaucracy require risk.

Decisive individuals choose not to work in a bureaucracy.

An individual who has decision-making power will take risks.

The only risky projects undertaken are those for which a single individual has decision-making power.

People sometimes take risks as individuals that they would not take as part of a group.

Most languages have distinct words for "sister" and "brother."

Each language has a different basic word for each sensory quality that its speakers can perceptually distinguish.

Every language makes some category distinctions that no other language makes.

In any language short, frequently used words express categories that are important for its speakers to distinguish perceptually from each other.

Speaker of languages with relatively few basic words for colors live in geographical regions where flora and fauna do not vary greatly in color.

Either all genetic mutations are random or none are random.

The bacteria tested in the experiments were of extremely common forms.

If all genetic mutations in bacteria are random, then all genetic mutations in every other life form are random also.

The kind of environment in which genetic mutation takes place has no effect on the way genetic mutation occurs.

The nutrients used were the same as those that nourish the bacteria in nature.

Some marsupials now found in Australia might not be native to that continent, but rather might have been introduced to Australia by some other means.

Humans who settled Australia probably introduced many of the placental mammal species now present on that Continent.

The only Australian placentals that could be native to Australia would be animals whose ancestors could not have reached Australia from elsewhere.

No marsupials now found in Australia can swim long distances, fly, or float on driftwood.

Seals, bats, and mice are typically found only in areas where there are no native marsupials.

Varieties of disease X requiring expensive special treatment have become less common during the past decade

Nonstandard methods of treating disease X are more expensive now than they were a decade ago.

Of total medical expenditures, the percentage that is due to treatment of disease X increased during the past decade

Most of the money spent on treating disease X during the last decade went to pay for nonstandard treatments

The total amount of money spent on treating disease X slowly declined during the past decade

It is one of the claims on which the conclusion is based.

It is the conclusion of the argument.

It states the position argued against.

It states a possible objection to the argument's conclusion.

It provides supplementary background information.

The automakers’ premises are shown to lead to a contradiction.

Facts are mentioned that show that the automakers are relying on false information.

A flaw is pointed out in the reasoning used by the automakers to reach their conclusion.

A comparison is drawn between the automakers’ current position and a position they held in the past.

Evidence is provided that the new emissions legislation is both economically feasible and environmentally necessary.

It offers evidence that the recommended course of action would have no undesirable consequences.

It shows that a proponent of any alternative position would be force into a contradiction.

It arrives at its conclusion indirectly by providing reasons for rejecting an alternative course of action.

It explains why the recommended course of action would not be subject to the objections raised against the alternative.

It justifies the conclusion by showing that such a course of action has proven effective in the past.

accepts Concetta's criterion and then adds evidence to Concetta's case

discredits Concetta's evidence and then generalizes from new evidence

rejects Concetta's criterion and then disputes a specific claim

disputes Concetta's conclusion and then presents facts in support of an alternative criterion

attacks one of Concetta's claims and then criticizes the structure of her argument

makes a detailed statistical projection of future topsoil loss

makes a generalization about the total reduction in topsoil depth in all states

assumes that the United States government does not place a high value on its natural resources

refrains from using slanted language concerning the level of federal expenditures

compares state expenditures with federal expenditures

providing evidence to show that the objection relies on a misunderstanding about the amount of time each United States traditionally have been closed

calling into question the relevance of information about historical practices to current disputes about proposed social change

arguing for an alternate understanding of the nature of the United States tradition regarding the length of the school year

showing that those who oppose extending the school year have no genuine concern for tradition

demonstrating that tradition justifies bringing the United States school year in line with that of the rest of the industrialized world

It cites experimental evidence that subscribing to the product being advertised has desirable consequences.

It ridicules people who do not subscribe to Stimulus by suggesting that they do not believe that exercise will improve brain capacity.

It explains the process by which the product being advertised brings about the result claimed for its use.

It supports its recommendation by a careful analysis of the concept of exercise.

It implies that brains and muscle are similar in one respect because they are similar in another respect.

showing that shifting costs onto the patient contradicts the premise of health-care reimbursement

attributing without justification fraudulent intent to people

employing an analogy to characterize interrelationships

denying the possibility of a solution by disparaging each possible alternative system

demonstrating that cooperation is feasible by citing an instance

It implies an analogy between the present and the past.

It identifies a general principle that the historian's reasoning violates.

It distinguishes between what has been established as a certainty and what has been established as a possibility.

It establishes explicit criteria that must be used in evaluating indirect evidence.

It points out the dissimilar roles that law plays in societies that are distinct from one another.

strongly, on the assumption that monetary values for environment factors cannot be assigned unless people make economic decisions about these factors

strongly, unless economic decision-making has not yet had any effect on the things categorized as environmental factors

at best weakly, because the passage fails to establish that economic decision-makers do not by and large take adequate account of environmental factors

at best weakly, because the argument assumes that pollution and other effects on environmental factors rarely result from economic decision-making

not at all, since the argument is circular, taking that conclusion as one of its premises

denying the existence of the disagreements cited by S

accepting S’s conclusion while disputing the reasons offered for it

relying on authorities whose views conflict with the views of the authorities cited by S

putting disagreements cited by S in perspective by emphasizing similarities

reasoning in a circle by accepting evidence only if it agrees with a desired conclusion

offering an alternative explanation of the variation in the occurrence of psychological problems across seasons

questioning whether any seasonal variation in the occurrence of psychological problems could properly be labeled a disorder

questioning the representativeness of the population sample surveyed by the psychologists

questioning an assumption that the author attributes to the psychologists

demonstrating that fewer people actually suffer from seasonal affective disorder than psychologists had previously thought

derive a general conclusion about all members of a group from facts known about representative members of that group

establish the validity of one explanation for a phenomenon by excluding alternative explanations

support, by describing a suitable mechanism, the hypothesis that a certain phenomenon can occur

conclude that members of two groups are likely to share a certain ability because of other
characteristics they share

demonstrate that a general rule applies in a particular case

finding a claim to be false on the grounds that it would if true have consequences that are false

accepting a claim on the basis of public opninon of the claim

showing that conditions necessary to establish the truth of a claim are met

basing a generalization on a representative group of instances

showing that a measure claimed to be effective in acheiving a certain effect would actually make acheiving the effect more difficult

High levels of household debt did not cause the recent recession

Low-income households succeeded in paying off their debts despite the recent recession

Affluent people probably increased their spending levels during the recent recession

High levels of household debt have little impact on the economy

When people borrowed money prior to the recent recession, they did not use it to purchase assets

the concept of moral obligation is inconherent

the ideas of right and duty should not be taken seriously since doing so leads to morally undesirable consequences

Zachary's principle is untenable on its own terms

because the term "moral obligation" is understood differently by different people, it is impossible to find a principle concerning moral rights and the duties that applies to everyone

Zachary's principle is based on an understanding of moral obligation that is too narrow to encompass the kind of moral obligation artists feel toward works of art

the government should continue trying to determine acceptable levels for toxic substances in our food supply

the only acceptable level of toxic substances in food is zero

naturally occurring toxic substances in food present little danger because they rarely occur in toxic concentrations

the government will never be able to determine with certainty that a food contains no toxic substances

the government needs to refine its methods of detecting toxic substances in our food supply

Journalists should reserve use of the phrase “in a surprise development" for major developments that are truly unexpected.

The phrase "in a surprise development" is appropriately used only where someone's being surprised is itself interesting.

The phase "in a surprise development" is used in three distinct sorts of circumstances.

Journalists should make the point that a development comes as a surprise when summing up, not when introducing a story.

Introducing stories with the phrase “in a surprise development” is not good journalistic practice.

In the absence of government standards, common understanding is the arbiter of deceptive labeling practices.

Truthful labeling practices that reflect common standards of usage can be established by the government.

The term “fresh” when it is applied to food products is commonly understood to mean pure and unprocessed.

Terms that apply to natural foods can be truthfully applied to packaged foods.

Clear government standards for labeling food products will ensure truthful labeling practices.

defining words in one way rather than another can alter either the facts or the conclusions the facts will justify

a word can be defined without taking into account its social and political connotations

a sound argument in support of a given conclusion is a better argument than any unsound argument for that same conclusion

it would be a good policy to avoid using words that are likely to lead people either to misunderstand the claims being made or to reason badly about those claims

a factor that affects neither the truth of an argument’s premises nor the logical relation between its premises and its conclusion can cause an argument to be a bad one

a socialist society is the inevitable consequence of historical trends that can be identified by an analysis of history

the institutions of capitalist society stand in need of transformation

socialists' arguments for the inevitability of socialism are justified

it is possible for people by their own efforts to affect the course of history

socialists analyze history in order to support the view that socialism is inevitable

it would be desirable to reduce the speed limit on major highway

professional drivers will drive within the legal speed limit if that limit is reduced

reducing the speed limit on major highways would cause some professional drivers to break the law

professional drivers are more competent drivers than are other less experienced drivers

all drivers wish to drive within the speed limit

whether joyriding physically endangers human lives

whether the unauthorized manipulation of computer data involves damage to privates property

whether damages to physical property is more criminal than damage to intellectual property

whether the unauthorized use of computers is as dangerous to people as is joyriding

whether treating private property recklessly is ever a dangerous crime

Senator Brandon has accepted gifts from lobbyists

It is wrong for politicians to accept gifts from lobbyists

Jane's criticism of Senator Brandon is motivated only by personal dislike

Senator Brandon should be criticized for accepting gifts from lobbyists

One or more politicians have accepted gifts from lobbyists

Even if the company had not been convicted of engaging in monopolistic practices, the trial probably would have had some effect on the company's behavior

The light shed on the company's practices by the trial has emboldened its competitors, alerted potential rivals, and forced the company to restrain its unfair behavior.

The penalty imposed on the company will likely have little or no effect on its behavior

The company's trial on charges engaging in monopolistic behavior was worthwhile

The penalty imposed on the company in the trial should have been larger

At least some Neanderthals lived at the same time and in the same places as prehistoric Homo sapiens ancestors of contemporary humans

DNA testing of remains is significantly less reliable than DNA testing of samples from living species

The DNA of prehistoric Homo sapiens ancestors of contemporary humans was not significantly more similar to that of Neanderthals than is the DNA of con

Neanderthals and prehistoric Homo sapiens ancestors of contemporary humans were completely isolated from each other geographically

Any similarity in the DNA of two species must be a result of interbreeding

If it had not been for the high tuition paid by students from outside Markland, the college could not have improved its academic standards over the past 10 years.

If academic standards had not risen over the past 10 years, students who are not Marklanders would still account for at least two-thirds of the college’s enrollment.

Over the past 10 year the number of students from Markland increased and the number of students from outside Markland decreased.

Over the past 10 years academic standards at Central Markland College have risen by more than academic standards at any other college in Markland.

If the college’s per capita revenue from tuition has remained the same, tuition fees have increased over the past 10 years.