Roughly 80% of Russia's population were peasants located in communes. However, there were some prosperous, well-off farmers and these were known as the kulaks. Peasants suffered from dire and desperate living and working conditions.

Two of the most common occurrences were famine and starvation. The average life expectancy for most peasants farmers was 40 years. Russia's land was not suitable for farming, yet an increase in the population by 50% between 1860 and 1897 meant that more land was required to sustain the population.

Families received a strip of land from sections of large fields that were divided up. The subdivision of these fields was carried out by peasant councils (mir). When a family had sons the land was subdivided and shared between them. As the population increased, the amount of land each peasant had to sustain themselves and their family decreased significantly. What did not help crop production was the ancient farming methods that the Russian peasants were accustomed to.

Russian peasants received no basic education and few could read or write. Many of the peasants were loyal to the Tsar though, despite living in destitute conditions. This was connected with their religious affiliations; the priest would honour the Tsar and call peasants to remain loyal. Not all peasants supported the Tsar though, the main opposition were known as the Social Revolutionaries. This group resented the aristocracy, the Church and Tsar for the vast amount of land they owned.

Aristocracy:

These individuals lived in the vast estates and huge houses in Russia. During the reign of Nicholas II, the aristocracy composed about 1.5% of the population but possessed about 25% of the land.

The aristocracy were loyal to the Tsar. In the countryside they controlled local councils called zemstva. They remained loyal to the Tsar in order to keep society structured as it was. The fear amongst rich Russians was the peasants would rise up and take their possessions from them.