What are the three main ways of gathering statistics on ethnicity and offending and punishment?

In England and Wales, people from some minority ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested for and convicted of crime than the White majority. Blacks are how much more likely than Whites to be arrested?

Blacks are how much more likely than Whites to be imprisoned?

Official statistics thus indicate that Black people are more likely to be criminal than White people. Why can official statistics not always be trusted, however?

Sociologists of race and crime are divided over what matter?

An alternative way of collecting crime statistics is through the use of self-report studies. What do these studies rely on?

Self-report studies reveal offending that has not resulted in arrests and convictions. What do they therefore provide?

If some ethnic groups are more likely to be arrested and convicted than those from other ethnic groups, what does this suggest?

The last major self-report study of ethnicity and offending was carried out in 2005. How many people participated?

The survey collected data on 20 core offences. Which ethnic group had the highest rates of offending?

There was only one category in which Black offending rates were higher than White rates. What was it?

However, robbery only accounts for a small proportion of crime and therefore cannot explain the overrepresentation of Black offenders in the criminal justice system. What does the data therefore suggest?

How are victim surveys carried out?

According to the CSEW, in 2012-2013, which group had the highest risk of being a victim of crime?

However, victimisation is not solely linked to ethnicity. Which sociologists argue that the higher risk of victimisation for ethnic minorities is partially the result of the relatively high proportion of them living in inner-cities, which have particularly high crime rates?

Given the high rates of victimisation, it is unsurprising that there is greater fear of crime among minority ethnic groups than the population as a whole. How do minority ethnic groups respond to their fear of crime?

Like all crime statistics, the findings of victimisation studies aren't wholly valid and reliable. However, what do they consistently suggest?

Tim Newburn notes that there has been a great deal of controversy over relationships between police and minority ethnic groups over recent decades. Which famous case sparked controversy over the way police handled the murder of a young Black man?

Following the poor handling of the Stephen Lawrence case, which inquiry was held to uncover whether there was an underlying issue?

What did the Macpherson Inquiry find?

In 2009, the Runnymede Trust reviewed the evidence about whether policing for and of minority ethnic groups had improved since the Macpherson Inquiry. What did it find?

According to the Runnymede Trust, how many police officers were from minority ethnic backgrounds?

What has sometimes been seen as the reason for overt racism within the police?

Which sociologist identifies the 'core characteristics' of the police culture?

What are the core characteristics of police culture, according to Reiner?

Today, it is much harder for officers to demonstrate overt racism without facing punishment, but hidden racism may still exist. Which BBC documentary gave evidence of this?

The hidden racism of police officers may be reflected in which statistics?

Black people are how much more likely than White people to be stopped and searched?

Ministry of Justice figures show that Black people make up a much higher proportion of arrests that the population as a whole. Phillips and Bowling state that after arrest, non-white groups are significantly more likely that Whites to do what?

After a caution, which group are more likely to be released?

Figures produced by the Ministry of Justice show that Whites are slightly more likely than Black and Asian defendants to be convicted of indictable offences once they have been sent for trial. However, what are Blacks and Asians more likely to receive?

There is a somewhat mixed picture in terms of evidence for or against racism in sentencing, but Black minority ethnic groups are certainly overrepresented in prison. In 2012, what percentage of the prison population were from Black ethnic groups?

What are the three theories of race and criminality provided in this chapter?

Who are the two leading writers of the left realist approach?

Lea and Young accept that there are racist practices among the police. However, what do they point out about the statistics?

Lea and Young claim that the high crime rates of Black youths is unsurprising. Why?

Some sociologists believe that the statistics on crime rates show racism in the police and CJS. Why do Lea and Young disagree?

What figure do Lea and Young use to counter the argument that the statistics indicate racism?

Which sociologist developed the anti-racist approach?

What does the anti-racist perspective focus on?

Gilroy rejects the left realist approach. Why?

Paul Gilroy refers to a 'myth of Black criminality'. What does he mean by this?

Unlike Lea and Young, Gilroy does not believe that what crime there is among Black British ethnic groups is a result of relative deprivation. What does he believe the cause of Black crime is?

Although Lea and Young accept that some criminal acts, such as rioting, could involve protest against marginalisation, Paul Gilroy goes much further. How?

Lea and Young have been critical of Gilroy's work, particularly criticising his belief that Black crime is a demonstration of resistance against White dominance. What do they point out?

Lea and Young also criticise Gilroy for taking a 'romantic' view. What do they mean by this?

How can Gilroy's methodology be criticised?

What criticism can be made about both Gilroy's and Lea and Young's work?

Which study illustrates the neo-marxist approach to ethnicity and crime?

Hall examined a period of crisis for British capitalism. The political and financial unrest led to the government arguing in favour of the use of force in maintaining order. However, use of force needed justification. How did the government and the media justify it?

Hall argued that focusing on a group who were already viewed negatively was beneficial because it drew attention away from the government and instead pinned it on young Black men. As such, how can said men be described?

Did Hall et al believe there really was a mugging epidemic?

Hall et al link the case study to which two concept?

Hall el al's work has the merit of looking at the big picture. By looking at the bigger picture, what does Hall et al's work avoid?

Which sociologist points out that some Asian groups (e.g. Pakistanis) have experienced relatively high levels of deprivation, just like Black groups?

Despite experiencing high levels of deprivation, what are Asian groups less likely to have happen to them?

Parmar's findings may suggest that cultural differences may be responsible for the apparent difference in criminality. What did Colin Webster argue about Black family structures and the impact this has on Black criminality?

In contrast, how did Webster describe Asian family structures?

Parmar argues that it is dangerous to generalise about the family structure of particular ethnic groups. What does she claim the differences are likely a result of?

However, what does Parmar concede?

Following his extensive research into ethnicity and gang crime in London, what did John Pitts conclude is relevant to explaining ethnic-minority crime?