Which two sociologists point out that official statistics on gender and crime have remained largely the same over time?

If official statistics are to be believed, which gender are significantly more likely to face legal trouble?

However, official statistics are not wholly reliable, so sociologists sometimes use self-report studies instead of or as well as official statistics. Which sociologist used self-report studies to support official statistics?

Newburn found that the data from self-report studies supported the picture provided by official statistics. However, what did the data also suggest?

The implication that official statistics might not accurately record male and female offending rates raises what question?

One possible explanation for the underrepresentation of women in crime statistics is that female crime may exist but simply go unrecorded and unreported. Who first proposed this explanation?

Pollak proposes the concept of 'hidden female offenders' - women who are naturally skilled at deceiving people. Why is this, according to Pollak?

Unsurprisingly, Pollak's theory has faced heavy criticism. Which feminist is particularly critical of Pollak?

What does Heidensohn think of Pollak's theory?

Which two sociologists provide evidence for the chivalry thesis?

What evidence did Haralambos and Holborn provide?

What is the average sentence given to male offenders convicted for robbery?

What is the average sentence given to female offenders convicted for robbery?

However, raw figures like those above may not tell the whole story. Why?

Which sociologist fully controlled all factors that had the potential to influence sentencing?

What did Hood still find?

Despite the above evidence, how do most sociologists feel about the chivalry thesis?

Which sociologist found that, contrary to Hood's claims, that the severity of an offence does indeed have a significant impact on sentencing?

The claim that women are being treated more leniently has also been contradicted. In 2004, Home Office research indicated that the courts are doing what to women?

Which sociologist points out that, contrary to the chivalry thesis, the rates of imprisoned women have steadily risen since the early 21st century?

Feminists argue that rather than being chivalrous, the criminal justice system is actually biased against women. What does Sandra Walklate argue about the court's treatment of female victims?

Similarly, evidence indicates that female victims of human-trafficking for the purposes of sex work are treated more harshly than the actual traffickers. Which feminist provides evidence for this?

Rather than being consistently biased in favour of one gender or the other, the criminal justice system may simply be 'gendered'. What is meant by this?

Which feminist examines how the gendered nature of the criminal justice system typically puts women at a disadvantage?

Heidensohn argues that women who deviate from the norms of behaviour associated with femininity are treated particularly badly. How are they viewed?

How are double deviants treated?

What similar conclusion did Kate Steward reach?

However, which sociologist counters Heidensohn's and Steward's claims by arguing that the differences in sentencing for men and women shouldn't necessarily be seen as bias?

Why does Hedderman believe that gender differences in sentencing shouldn't necessarily be seen as bias?

One explanation as to why women are more likely to conform to the law than men is the biological explanation. What does this explanation argue?

However, which sociologist argues that menstrual factors can influence a minority of women to commit crime in certain circumstances?

On the other hand, by attributing the small proportion of female crime to hormones and/or menstruation, what does Dalton fail to explain?

Why does Tim Newburn criticise the biological explanation?

An alternative explanation for the gender differences in offending rates is the sex-role theory. What does this argue?

Functionalist theories of the family coincide with the sex-role theory. How?

Albert Cohen provided a similar argument. According to Cohen, why is delinquency is mainly carried out by males?

While sex-role theory partially explains female offending, it doesn't provide a holistic explanation. Which two sociologists found that women often give a variety of reasons for their criminality, many of which are not related to sex-role socialisation?

Which reasons did women give for their criminality that bear no relation to sex roles?

The biological and sex-role theories characterise females as being less aggressive than males. Which theory contradicts this?

The liberationist theory suggest that the increase in female crime rates are linked to what?

Martyn Denscombe believed that the increase in female crime rates is a result of more and more women assuming masculine roles. According to Denscombe, what are females now as likely as males to engage in?

Sallie Westwood developed similar ides. What concept did she believe has limited our understanding of crime?

Westwood argues that identities are constantly being reconstructed and reframed. As such, how should we respond to the concept?

However, Heidensohn rejects the claims made by Denscombe and Westwood. What evidence does Heidensohn cite when arguing that women have not assumed 'male' roles?

Heidensohn also disputes the argument that increasing female crime rates can be linked to women's liberation. Why?

According to Heidensohn and Silvestri, what might the increase in female crime rates be the result of?

Heidensohn argues that, contrary to the above claims, women are simply less likely to commit crime. Why?

Heidensohn points out a wide range of informal sanctions that discourage women from straying from 'proper' behaviour. Give examples:

According to Heidensohn, there are three settings in which there is greater social control exercised over women than men. What are they?

How are women controlled at home?

How are women controlled in public?

How are women controlled in the workplace?

Which sociologist supports Heidensohn's theory by providing research that showed how parents subject their daughters to greater informal control than their sons?

However, why can Heidensohn's work be criticised?

Which other feminist sociologist uses social control theory to explain female crime rates?

Carlen's work was heavily influenced by which other sociologist?

According to Carlen, what two factors interact in explaining the offending of the women.

According to Carlen, why do some women offend?

Conversely, most women choose to conform because they believe they have reason to. What is this reason?

What does the class deal involve?

What does the gender deal involve?

What does Carlen think about the class and gender deals?

Although Carlen's study was based on a small sample, evidence from which report supports her belief that many female offenders come from deprived backgrounds?

While some sociologists attempt to explain the low offending rates of women, others attempt to explain the high offending rates of men. Which sociologist is perhaps best known for taking this approach?

Messerschmidt argues that a 'normative masculinity' exists within society. What does this term refer to?

Messerschmidt claims that masculinity is unnatural, something that men have to strive to achieve and have to constantly work at to maintain. They do this in a number of ways, depending on the particular male's access to power. What examples does Messerschmidt give?

Why can normative masculinity be used to explain why men commit more crime than women?

Which other sociologist also uses the concept of masculinity to understand why men commit crime?

Winlow stated that, in the past, working-class men were able to gain status through work in traditional industries, which meant there was very little organise crime. What social change impacted this?

How did the search for status impact crime rates?

Winlow's research provides an interesting case study of the relationships between which three elements?

Both Messerschmidt and Winlow's explanations emphasise how a search for status and success can result in men turning to crime. However, what can they be accused of neglecting?

Which sociologist claims that committing crime provides thrill to the perpetrators, and it is this thrill that encourages perpetrators to continue offending?