Biochemistry
Bonds
ionic bonds-bonds formed between oppositely charged ions; one or more electrons is transferred to another atom

covalent bonds- electrons are shared to gain a stable conformation

isotope-atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons; some are unstable and break down over time i.e. carbon-14

molecular=2 non-metals

covalent=metal+non-metal

pH scale

1-most acidic (high concentration of hydrogen ions)

14-most basic(high concentration of hydroxide ions)

Organic molecules- carbon based; carbon atoms usually bond to each other and hydrogen

polar covalent bonds

have regions of high electronegativity and low electronegativity. the electrons are drawn to atoms with high electronegativity . those atoms then gain a partial negative charge i.e. water

non-polar covalent bonds

share the atoms fairly equally because they have similar electronegativities i.e. hydrogen and carbon

hydrophobic-water hating (most non-polar molecules)

hydrophilic-water loving (most polar molecules)

intramolecular forces - hold atoms together within molecule

intermolecular forces-much weaker forces between molecules that hold them together

Functional groups

-an atom or group of atoms attached to a molecule which give it particular chemical and physical properties

hydroxyl - polar

carbonyl - polar

carboxyl - polar,acidic

amino - polar, basic

sulfhydryl - slightly polar

phosphate - polar

Macronutrients

carbohydrates

where we get most our energy

have glycosidic linkages
monosaccharides (simple sugars) glucose, fructose, galactose
disaccharides (double sugars) sucrose, maltose, lactose
polysaccharides (long chains of monosaccharides) starch(made of monosaccharides) glycogen (polysaccharides) stores starch celluslose(glucose) comes from plants and cannot be broken down by humans

lipids

fats and oils
have ester linkages
triglyceride (most common) 3 fatty acids and a glycerol molecule
saturated fatty acids - solid at room temp; found in animals: contain max number of hydrogen atoms per carbon atom
unsaturated fatty acids - liquid at room temp;found in plants; contain a double carbon bond
polysaturated fatty acid - liquid at room temp;found in plants; contain more than one double carbon bond
phospholipids- water soluble phosphate head and a fatty acid tail; found in cell membrane
steriods- made up of four carbon based rings
waxes-solid at room temp; long carbon based chains

proteins

used by cells to build structures
chain of amino acids called a polypeptide
made of 20 different amino acids
held together by peptide bonds
have primary, secondary, tertiary structure determined by how many amino acids there are

nucleic acid

DNA-stores genetic info; repairs worn cells and makes new ones
DNA is arranged into genes which determine characteristics
RNA- participates in protein synthesis

enzymes
-lower the activation energy of a reaction to speed it up
-enzyme substrate complex:enzyme fits into a substrate and speeds up reaction
-allosteric enzyme-involved with control and regulation of biological processes

reactions
neutralization- acid and base interact forming a salt and water as they neutralize each other
oxidation-reduction reaction- transfer of electrons
dehydration- an hydrogen atom and a hydroxide atom and removed and the two molecules bond leaving water as a product
hydrolysis- water is added to break apart bods between monomers. A hydrogen and hydroxide are added to make two smaller molecules

intracellular fluid - environment inside of cell
extracellular fluid - fluid outside of cell
concentration gradient - difference in concentration between one side of membrane and the other
facilitated diffusion - transport of ions or molecules across membrane by means of a protein
diffusion- movement from area of high concentration to low concentration
osmosis- diffusion of water across membranes
passive transport - movement without use of energy
active transport - movement with energy; wouldn't go there naturally
solutions
isotonic - same concentration
hypertonic- higher concentration of solutes than water
hypotonic - higher concentration of water than solutes
osmotic pressure- pressure produced as water accumulates inside cell exerting outward on membrane; could cause cells to burst
turgor pressure - water collects in central vacuole of plants and enables them to stand upright

cell organelles
cell membrane- thin, semi-permeable membrane around cell which consists of phospholipids
cell wall- protects and supports cell; made of tough cellulose; gives shape
cytoplasm- fluid consisting of everything except nucleus in cell
nucleus- control center of cell surrounded by nuclear membrane and filled with nucleoplasm; contains DNA in thee form of chromatin
chloroplasts- site for photosynthesis
vacuole- storage for food, water , etc.
ribosomes- synthesize proteins

DNA
- contains 100 000 genes which code for a person's characteristics

	Created by emmabluhm almost 9 years ago

grade 12 Biology Note on Biochemistry, created by emmabluhm on 17/06/2015.