There are several different types of observation. Firstly, we can distinguish between non-participant observation and participant observation. What are they?

In addition, we can distinguish between overt observation and covert observation. What are they?

However, it is important to realise that research doesn't always fit neatly into one single category. Give an example of a study that fit into more than one category:

In sociology, what form does most observation take?

However, which group occasionally use structured observation, which is normally non-participant?

Importantly, observation can be used in conjunction with what?

Sociologists face two main issues when conducting a participant observation. What are they?

Firstly, the sociologist must gain entry to the group. Some groups are fairly easy to join, while others are almost impossible to gain entry to. Give an example:

Making the initial contact with the group may depend on personal skills, having the right connections, or even pure chance. What helped Ned Polsky, James Patrick and Eileen Fairhurst when trying to enter their respective groups?

To gain entry into a group, the researcher will have to win the group's trust and acceptance. It can help to befriend a key group member. Which sociologist took this approach?

However, the researcher's age, gender, class and/or ethnicity can hinder their research. What did Thornton note?

Some researchers have gone to remarkable lengths to gain acceptance and pass as a group member. However, John Howard Griffin probably went to the most extreme lengths. What did he do?

'Getting in' to the group means the researcher needs to decide what sort of role they should adopt. Ideally, their role should be what?

How did Whyte succeed in achieving both of these aims?

However, it's not always possible to take a role that's both unobtrusive and a good vantage point. Some roles may also involve taking sides in conflicts. What does this result in?

Once accepted into the group, the researcher needs to be able to remain in the group and complete the study. A key problem arise here. What is it?

One risk of remaining in a group is 'going native'. What is meant by this?

In his study of the Amsterdam police, which sociologists found himself over-identifying with the policemen, even seeing himself as an officer and considering the group members to be his 'colleagues'?

However, this can go the other way too. How?

A further problem of staying in is tat the more time spent with the group, the less strange their ways appear to be. Why is this an issue?

Finally, the research needs to leave the group at the end of the study. This is generally easier than getting and staying in. If necessary, the researcher can simply up and leave. Which sociologist did this, and why?

Other sociologists can simply leave, particularly if their research has been overt. Nonetheless, leaving a group with whom one has become close to can be difficult. What issues do some sociologists face upon entering the 'normal' world?

The researcher may also struggle with loyalty. Why?

Sociologists must decide whether they wish to use overt or covert observation. Many opt for overt observation, because it has several advantages. Give examples of advantages:

However, overt observation has two major disadvantages. What are they?

Because of these disadvantages, some sociologists opt for covert observation. Covert observation has several practical advantages, but also several practical disadvantages. What is the main practical advantage?

Laud Humphrey's used covert observation to study homosexual men's sexual encounters in public toilets. What did he note?

However, covert observation can pose practical problems. Give examples:

Furthermore, the researcher can't openly take notes, instead having to rely on memory. Which two sociologists found that this caused a problem?

In addition to the practical issues, there are numerous ethical issues in covert observation. Give examples:

Participant observation offers many advantages. Why is it more valid than other methods?

In addition, participant observation provides more insight. Why?

Furthermore, participant observation is very flexible. For methods such as questionnaires, the researcher must begin with a specific hypothesis and preset questions. Thus, even before collecting data, they will have already decided what is and isn't important. How does participant observation differ?

Finally, there are many practical advantages. For example, sometimes participant observation is the only practical method for studying certain groups, especially groups engaged in criminal activity, who are likely to be suspicious of outsiders asking questions. What does Lewis Yablonsky point out?

Participant observation can also be used in situations where questioning would be ineffective. Which sociologist showed this in their study of how police and probation officers categorise juveniles by making unconscious assumptions about them?

Despite having a number of advantages, participant observation also faces a number of disadvantages. Give examples of practical disadvantages:

Give examples of ethical disadvantages that occur in participant observation:

Another disadvantage is that participant observation isn't representative. This can be compared to quantitative survey methods, which study large, representative samples. Why is the lack of representation an issue?

To achieve reliability, research procedures need to be standardised, thus allowing other researchers to reproduce them. Why is participant observation fairly unreliable?

In addition, participant observation produces qualitative data. What can this result in?

Another disadvantage is its lack of objectivity. Why do critics argue that participant observation lacks objectivity?

According to its supporters, a great strength of participant observation is its validity. Why do positivists reject this claim?

Interactionists favour participant observation because it is useful in examining microlevel interactions firsthand. Why do structural sociologists see this as inadequate?