How do David Held et al define globalisation?

According to the United Nations Development Programme, globalisation has resulted in the massive growth of which crimes?

What is the total value of transnational organised crime estimated by the United Nations to be per year?

However, it can be said that globalisation also helps to tackle crime. Give examples of how it does so:

Which sociologist argues that globalisation involves the development of transnational networks?

Why have these criminal networks developed?

The growth of the information age and existence of networks has resulted in the development of a global criminal economy in which there are complex interconnections between a range of criminal groups. Which groups does Castells give as examples?

Why do criminal networks operate transnationally?

Where do their criminal operations typically take place?

However, where do the networks often sell their 'products' (e.g. drugs)?

While many networks are transnational in scope, what are they often organised along?

According to Castells, what is the biggest global criminal business?

Castells states that global criminal networks harm more than just the victims. What else do they negatively impact?

In a number of countries, organised crime is closely linked to corruption within the government. What can this distort and prevent?

Tim Newburn gives three consequences of globalisation in relation to crime. What are they?

Which socialist criminologist argues that the development of capitalism is the main driver for the globalisation of crime?

How does capitalism assist global crime, according to Taylor?

Globalisation processes can therefore be seen as enabling crime. How do they encourage the elite to offend?

How do globalisation processes assist in organised crime?

How do globalisation processes indirectly cause more working-class crime, according to Taylor?

Which sociologist argues that the decline in employment encourages the growth of small firms in Western Europe that avoid labour laws and operate outside the formal economy?

Furthermore, these companies often don't help to decrease the unemployment rate. Why?

Although globalisation can increase transnational crime, local organisations are also important. When studying criminal networks in the north-east of England, what did Dick Hobbs and Colin Dunningham find?

Hobbs and Dunningham concluded that crime wasn't just organised globally but also locally. What term did they create to refer to this?

Globalisation is also closely linked to many crimes that are known as 'green crimes'. This is a wide category. Give examples of crimes that are included under it:

There is no single agreed definition of crimes against the environment. Narrower definitions tend to be framed in terms of illegality - crimes against the environment are only crimes if they have an illegal status. Which two sociologists hold this view?

Broader approaches argue that some actions that are currently legal should also be regarded as environmental crime. Name a sociologist who takes this approach:

South develops an argument for understanding environmental crimes. What are the two elements who discusses?

What does South mean by 'primary environmental crimes'?

How are these so-called primary environmental crimes often referred to currently?

Give examples of primary environmental crimes:

What does South mean by 'environmental law-breaking'?

Give an example of environmental law-breaking:

Some sociologists go even further than South, arguing that legal definitions of crime should be entirely disregarded and actions should be judged solely in terms of harm. What concept do these sociologists argue in favour of?

What is zeminology?

According to Reece Walters, rather than using the term 'environmental crime' or 'green crime', how should we identify acts or omissions that threaten the long-term sustainability of life on Earth?

Walters states that eco-crimes are crimes against nature, rather than crimes against individual humans or species. However, what does Walters also include in the category of eco-crime?

Thomas White supports Walters' view. He is critical of what he refers to as 'anthropocentric' definitions of crime. What does he mean by 'anthropocentric'?

What sort of approach does White advocate for?

White argues that damaging the environment isn't just harmful in itself - what does it also damage?

One of the most influential theoretical approaches to understanding green crime is provided by Ulrich Beck. According to Beck, what has economic growth in more affluent countries resulted in?

However, economic growth has brought with it new risks. Give examples:

Previously, the risks of a lack of resources and natural disasters were more likely to result in harm to lower social groups. However, what does Beck note about the risks we now witness in modern society?

Why is there more global awareness of risks, according to Beck?

However, Beck has been criticised for suggesting that all classes are equally vulnerable to man-made risks. What does Philip Sutton point out?

Beck's ideas have been very influential but they are not completely relevant to the discussion of green crime. Why?

Which sociologist put much more emphasis on the role of capitalism when discussing the cause of green crime?

Halsey argues that green crime is caused by the dominance of capitalist ideology. Why?

More specifically, corporate crime is often blamed for environmental harm. Nigel South discusses the "corporate colonisation of nature". What does he mean by this?

Reece Walters gives some examples of the corporate colonisation of nature. What are they?

It is undeniable that capitalist corporations have been responsible for a great deal of crime and environmental harm. However, they are not solely to blame. Which two other organisations hold some responsibility?

However, if the definition of green crime is extended to include all damage to the environment, then who can arguably be held accountable?

Why are some states able to commit crime on a much bigger scale than is possible for individuals?

Which two sociologists note that states are able to commit crime on a much bigger scale than individuals because of their ability to maintain secrecy over their actions?

What examples of state crime do Green and Ward provide?

Which sociologist divides state crimes into four categories?

What are the four types of state crimes identified by McLaughlin?

State crime can be defined in a number of ways. Firstly, it can be defined in terms of breaking the laws of the society in which the crime occurs. However, what is the problem of this definition?

A second approach is to base definitions of state crime on international law. However, this is also a problematic approach. Why?

A third, popular approach is to use the idea of human rights to provide a basis for determining what is and is not state crime. Which two sociologists adopt this approach?

This approach is in keeping with what concept?

The approach raises the question of how 'human rights' are defined. Where does the most widely used definition of human rights come from?

According to Sinšia Malešević, the UN's definition portrays human rights as universal. However, why have sociologists objected to the notion of universal human rights?

Nonetheless, critical social scientists insist that universal standards are possible and sociologists can identify harmful behaviours, regardless of local customs. In fact, Herman and Julia Schwendinger go even further than this. How?

However, Bryan Turner notes one major issue with the idea of universal human rights. What is it?

Who pioneered the study of social reactions to state crime and human rights abuses?

How does Cohen define state crimes?

Despite the fact that human rights abuses are often extreme in nature, states often develop a culture of denial to respond to allegations. How many stages are there in this culture of denial?

What is the first stage in the culture of denial?

What is the second stage in the culture of denial?

What is the third stage in the culture of denial?

The justifications of abuse that states engage in has been referred to as "techniques of neutralisation" by which two sociologists?

Cohen identifies five techniques of neutralisation. Give examples:

Cohen adds that ordinary citizens will go along with abuses of human rights in certain circumstances, which make techniques of neutralisation more effective. How does he refer to this compliance?

Cohen argues that crimes of obedience are more likely to occur when what three conditions are met?

Cohen's work can be used when examining why human rights abuses remain common despite active attempts to remove them. However, he does also make one optimistic acknowledgement. What is it?

Cohen's work helps to explain why state crime involving human rights abuses are possible, even in societies that condemn these acts and regard them as immoral. However, what does it fail to explain?

Penny Green and Tony Ward argue that there are two main approaches that provide an explanation as to why human rights are abused. What is the first?

Which two sociologists developed the integrated theory of crime?

According to the integrated theory of state crime, three elements must be satisfied in order for crime to occur. What are the three elements?

What is the second approach identified by Green and Ward?

What is the obedience approach exemplified by?

According to Green and Ward, what must be done to these approaches in order to fully understand state crime?

State crime does not always involve human rights abuses or the use of violence - quite often, it involves corruption that furthers the interests of both the state and some outside group. What is this sort of crime often motivated by?

This sort of crime is common in what Max Weber refers to as "patrimonial states". How do Green and Ward define this term?

Although the blatant corruption that exists in patrimonial states is not so apparent in Western democracies, what is quite common?

What is meant by 'clientism'?

What key institution within the British legal system can be regarded as an example of clientism?