Changing the way you learn

Question	Answer
DNA	Deoxyribonucleic acid has a spiralling double helix shape with ladder rungs, is composed of 4 nitrogen containing bases and contains all the genetic information for the individual. The basis of inheritance. DNA never leaves the nucleus.
Proteins	Make up everything in the body and have 4 levels of forming. The structure of a protein determines its shape. They form amino acids. Examples of functions: enzymes, actin+myosin, hemoglobin, transportation, antibodies, etc.
Nucleotides	Made up of a sugar molecule, phosphate molecule, and a nitrogen containing base. Can be obtained from the food we eat.
Nitrogen Containing Base	A part of a nucleotide in DNA, including adenine, thymine, guanine, and cytosine.
RNA	RNA contains a ribose instead of a deoxyribose like DNA has, is single stranded, uses uracil instead of thymine, and is shorter than DNA.
Griffiths	Studied pathogenic bacteria in mice that caused pneumonia. Did the original experiment that concluded that something was being passed on from rough to smooth strains.
Franklin and Wilkins	Got the first image of DNA from an x-ray pattern and noticed the ladder rungs and helix shape.
Watson and Crick	Published a paper about DNA structure and the double helix shape.
Structure of DNA	Has a double helix spiral Bases make rungs of a ladder Made of repeating units (nucleotides) Each base is different size that fits together Hydrogen bonds determine pair formations. Bases are on the inside and the structure is anti-parallel, meaning one strand is upside-down.
Purines	Have a double ring and include adenine and guanine.
Pyrimidines	Have a single ring and include thymine and cytosine (also U).
Chargaff's Rule	Ratios for base pairs are always the same. For example, the adenine ratio is always equivalent to the thymine ratio.
Bonding Pairs	A and T have a double hydrogen bond and G and C have a triple hydrogen bond.
Semi-Conservative Replication	When part of the DNA comes from the original strand and the other is merely a "photocopy" of the original. One part new, one part old.
DNA Replication	Must have nucleotides to perform replication, as well as enzymes such as helices, RNA primase, DNA polymerase, and ligase.
Helicase	An enzyme that pulls DNA apart like a zipper so that it can be replicated.
RNA Primase	An enzyme that sets down a primer so that other enzymes can lay new nucleotides, making a new strand of DNA.
DNA Polymerase	1. adds nucleotides to strands of DNA 2. replaces RNA primer with nucleotides 3. proofreads the end product
Ligase	An enzyme that glues together Okazaki fragments in the lagging strand.
Okazaki Fragments	Sections on the lagging strand that have had RNA pieces and nucleotides, done in sections.
Leading Strand	The strand of DNA that is replicating using a DNA Polymerase going in the direction of the helicase enzyme. Called the leading strand because it seems to move faster and is less complicated.
Lagging Strand	The strand of DNA that uses the RNA Primase to create small sections upon the strand, followed by the DNA Polymerase that sets down nucleotides and replaces the RNA. Has Okazaki fragments and is called the lagging strand because it seems to be one step behind the leading strand. Goes in the opposite direction of the helicase enzyme.
Function of DNA	The order of the bases determines amino acids, which determines the shape of protiens which determines the function.
Transcription	The process of copying a segment of DNA using the enzyme RNA Polymerase. The copy is called messenger RNA, or mRNA.
RNA Polymerase	An enzyme that places down nucleotides on the mRNA strand that is part of the copied DNA.
Messenger RNA	A copy of DNA that is created using the transcription process.
Gene	A section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide.
Translation	The process where proteins are made in the form of a polypeptide chain. Ribosomes are used to make protiens in the cytoplasm along the mRNA strand made in transcription.
Protein Synthesis	Occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell. An mRNA strand gets a tRNA (transfer RNA) attached to it. An amino acid is on top of the tRNA. A second tRNA is then placed to bond with the bases beside the first tRNA, and the amino acids bond. The first tRNA is removed and another joins beside it, making a conveyor belt type movement. Eventually, a chain of amino acids are formed and the cycle stops.
Transfer RNA	A t-shaped molecule that attaches to the mRNA and has an amino acid placed on top. These tRNA are placed beside each other in a continuous system where the amino acids bond on top and create a chain.
Start Codon	A triplet of bases, AUG, that signal the beginning of protein synthesis.
Mutation	A mistake made during the replication of DNA.
Point Mutation	A chemical change that involves one or a few nucleotides in a gene.
Substitution	A type of point mutation that replaces one nucleotide with another. Results in silent, missense, or nonsense mutation.
Silent Substitution	When the mutation has no effect on the protein coded for, as in the amino acid chain stays the same.
Missense Substitution	When a mutation codes for a different amino acid than the original code intended.
Nonsense Substitution	When a mutation changes an amino acid to a stop signal, or terminator codon.
Frame Shift	A type of mutation where there is an addition or loss of one or more nucleotides in a gene. Has bigger consequences for the individual.
Mutagens	Physical and chemical agents that interact with DNA that cause mutations.
DNA Fingerprinting	The process of using PCR, restriction enzymes and gel electrophoresis to make more DNA from a sample and compare separate sections.
PCR	Polymerase Chain Reaction first denatures the DNA sample by heating it up, then adds the primer to the mixture as well as DNA Polymerase so that it can replicate the strands until thousands have been made.
Restriction Enzymes	Are like scissors in that they cut apart sections of DNA and use liege to glue them back together.
Gel Electrophoresis	The process of separating DNA pieces by size using a power source that has a positive and negative end. Large strands don't move long distances and short strands do, making it easier to compare.
Somatic Cells	The body cells, meaning everything except the germ cells. These cells have two sets of chromosomes.
Germ Cells	Cells related to the gametes (eggs and sperm) and are not somatic cells. These cells have only one set of chromosomes.
The Cell Cycle	A circle that shows the processes the cell goes through for cell division, including the G1 phase, S phase, G2 phase, interphase and division through mitosis. The cycle is continuous and does not apply to red blood cells, sperm and egg cells, and neurons.
G1 Phase	Rapid growth and metabolic activity.
G2 Phase	Cell prepares for division by doing the same things as G1, as well as reproducing organelles.
Interphase	Everything except mitosis, including G1, S, and G2 phase.
S Phase	DNA synthesis and replication.
Mitosis	The division of the genetic material in two nuclei (DNA). All of the cells are identical. Goes through the processes of Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis, which is not a phase.
Prophase	Nuclear membrane disappears, the chromatin condenses into chromosomes, mitotic spindle connects to the centromere, and centrioles move to the opposite sides of the cell.
Metaphase	Chromosomes align to the centre in a straight line, lined up vertically so that each sister chromatid can separate.
Anaphase	Sister chromatids split and are pulled toward each centriole, one on each side of the cell.
Telophase	A nuclear membrane forms around each of the sets of chromosomes, centrioles and spindle fibres disappear, and chromosomes become chromatin.
Cytokinesis	Is not a phase of mitosis, and is when a new membrane forms around each new nucleus.
Cancer	The rapid, uncontrolled division of cells that have lost the ability to understand their process in the cell cycle. They spend most of their time in mitosis rather than interphase.
Tumor	A mass of undifferentiated cells that interfere with normal functioning. They are the result of one transformed cell.
Metastasis	The spreading of cancer cells throughout the body that can create tutors in new locations.
Carcinogens	Substances that can cause cancer, such as tobacco or UV rays.
Cloning	A use for mitosis that results in an exact copy of an organism by the process of transplanting a somatic cell into an empty egg. The embryo then grows normally, though results have shown that subjects have considerably shorter life spans.
Asexual Reproduction	Used for single celled organisms because they have shorter life spans and less energy to expel for cell reproduction. It is more efficient for these cells to use asexual reproduction.
Sexual Reproduction	The combination of two different sets of DNA that allow for variation in the organism and ultimately variation in the species.
Haploid Number	23 chromosomes, or half the chromosomes needed to code for all the DNA. The gametes have a haploid number of cells.
Diploid Number	46 chromosomes, or the full amount of chromosomes to code for all the aspects of the body. The diploid number is used to describe somatic cells. Cannot be an odd number.
Homologous Chromosomes	A chromosome that is a pair for the original, yet codes for slightly different things due to the fact that one part of the pair is from the mother and one from the father.
Sex Chromosome	Chromosome number 23 labelled X and Y that code for the gender of the organism.
Autosomes	Exist in pairs with one from the mother and one from the father.
Meiosis	Is the cell division for the gametes that involves two cell divisions instead of one, like mitosis. There are two copies of every event in mitosis and half the number of chromosomes in the daughter cells than in the parent cell, though all the information is there due to the double stranded nature of the chromosomes.
Prophase I	In prophase one the nucleus disappears, centrioles appear, spindle fibres appear, and the double stranded chromosomes have a homologous pair which form a tetrad and cross over information for different genes.
Tetrad	Two homologous chromosomes. It is called a tetrad because between the two of them there are four sister chromatids present.
Crossing Over	The process of exchanging information between homologous chromosomes during prophase I. This allows each cell to be a little bit different than the other and causes variation.
Metaphase I	The chromosomes line up with their homologous pairs instead of in a single line, and the spindle fibres attach. There is a random assortment of chromosomes.
Anaphase I	The homologous pairs are split apart into separate double stranded chromosomes instead of single strands. The chromosomes are dragged towards opposite poles of the cell.
Telophase I	Cytokinesis occurs and create two diploid daughter cells. No nucleus or chromatin is formed because the cell will soon be splitting again.
Prophase II	Centrioles and spindle fibres form, though there is no nucleus from telophase and no crossing over because the chromosomes are already mixed.
Metaphase II	The chromosomes line up in single file and the spindle fibres attach to each sister chromatid.
Anaphase II	The sister chromatids are pulled apart by the spindle fibres and taken to the opposite pole of the cell.
Daughter Cells of Meiosis	The new daughter cells formed as a product of meiosis are are different because each chromosome within it has a unique set of information. There are four daughter cells produced from meiosis as opposed to two.
Reduction Division	The fact that in the beginning of meiosis the cell splits in to two daughter cells with half as many double stranded chromosomes, and then splits again so that the four daughter cells have half as many single stranded chromosomes as the original parent cell.
Spermatogenesis	The production of mature sperm through the process of meiosis. Begins to occur at puberty. Every 4 sperm take 3 months to mature, and the process is used throughout the lifespan of the individual.
Oogenesis	The production of an egg through the process of mitosis. some cytoplasm is transferred to other eggs, creating a single egg for every four made. The eggs are produced before birth and ends at a midlife/senior age.
Polar Bodies	The three eggs produced during mitosis that transfer their cytoplasm to the other singular egg and then are not used.
Chiasma	The cross genetics or crossing over.
Ploidy	Either a haploid or diploid.
Non-Disjunction	When chromosomes do not separate during anaphase and one cell is left with too much information and the other with not enough (trisomy and monosomy). The causes can be the mothers age or external factors like carcinogens.
Trisomy	Where too many chromosomes are in a cell after replication and extra information is present.
Monosomy	Where there are not enough chromosomes in the cell after replication and the cell is lacking information.
Down's Syndrome	The result of a trisomy that causes heart, respiratory, and brain issues, as well as being sterile. There are 3 chromosome number 21s.

Next up

Biology 30 Flash Cards {1}

Description

Resource summary

Similar

	Created by Natasha Gidluck over 6 years ago