25126532
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| Title of Work: Apollo 11 stones Date: c. 25, 500 - 25,300 B.C. Location: Cave, Huns Mountains of Namibia Materials: Charcoal on stone Technique: Heating wood Function and Content: Because they are so small, the rocks could be an early form of portable art. They were found near an ongoing settlement that included places with ritual significance, so they could also be a form of self-expression or shamanism. Form: Half-human, half-antelope, profile view | |
| Title of Work: Great Hall of the Bulls Date: c. 15,000 - 13,000 B.C. Period: Paleolithic Europe Location: Lascaux Cave, France Materials: Charcoal rock painting Technique: Hands/tools as stencils while blowing pigments to spray the surface Function and Content: The paintings emulate the natural world, and may represent hunting scenes or animal rituals. The superimposed animal forms most likely represent different artists' depictions over time. Form: "Twisted perspective" animals in movement | |
| Title: Camelid sacrum in the shape of a canine Date: c. 14,000 - 7000 B.C. Location: Tequixquiac, Mexico Material: Bone Technique: Carving Function and Content: The sacrum has a triangular shape, so it is often to used to carve animals with a muzzle or snout. In addition, it is considered to be a sacred bone.. It may have been used as a personal talisman, portable art, or a ritual object. Form: triangular shape | |
| Title of Work: Running horned woman Date: c. 6000 - 4000 B.C. Location: Tassili nA'jjer, Algeria Material: Pigment on rock Technique: Crushing rock for pigments, engraving stone Function and Content: Worshiping goddess, rites, dots/shapes represent physical ornamentation used for certain rites | |
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Ibex (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Beaker with ibex motifs Date: 4200 - 3500 B.C. Location: Susa (Iran) Materials: Painted terra cotta Function and Content: The vessel was buried in a cemetery, near an artificial mound. The animals may represent wild and domesticated animals of an agricultural society Form: geometric patterns, abstract animal designs, including a centralized image of an ibex, dogs, and shorebirds, registers, stylized elements |
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Stele (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Anthropomorphic stele Date: c. 4000 - 3000 B.C. Location: Ha'il, Saudi Arabia Materials: Carved Sandstone Function and Content: It may have been used as a grave marker and is associated with religious or burial practices. The upright male figure is represented in an abstract, stylistic manner. Form: facial features, belt with double bladed sword |
| Title of Work: Jade cong Date: c. 3300 - 2200 B.C. Location: Graves in Delta of Yangtze River Materials: carved jade Technique: Rubbing with abrasive sand Function and Content: Liangzhu culture (farming along the Yangtze) is known for creating sophisticated ceramics and tools. They may be linked to a ritual or funerary purpose because many were found in gravesites alongside bi. The rectilinear form may represent the physical world and the curvilinear form may represent the spiritual world. The cong are symbols of power/wealth and show a connection to nature. Faces may be spirits or deities. Form: rectangular outer section with a circular hole in the middle, bas-relief, high-relief, different sizes | |
| Title of Work: Stonehenge Date: c. 2500 - 1600 B.C. Period: Neolithic Europe Location: Salisbury Plain, England Materials: Sandstone Technique: Phase 1 (Circular Ditch - Henge), Phase 2 (Wooden Posts), and Phase 3 (Erection of Stones). Function and Content: Scholars believe it was an astronomical observatory or a burial site. Different kinds of heavy stones, such as bluestones, were used, which were transported from faraway quarries, suggesting religious connections. It may have a center of pilgrimage and healing for the sick. Form: trilithons - two vertical posts and one horizontal lintel, concentric circles | |
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Ambum (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Ambum stone Date: c. 1500 B.C. Location: Limestone cave, Papua New Guinea Materials: Carved greywacke stone Function and Content: Although its function is largely unknown, the portable figure may have been used as a grinder (pestle). It also may have been used in a fertility context., or represent a spiritual deity. It was carved in greywacke, a long-lasting material. It is extremely difficult to carve, so it must have been a very valuable object. Form: long-beaked echidna with elongated nostrils and a flat base |
| Title of Work: Tlatilco female figurine Date: c. 1200 - 900 B.C. Location: Tlatilco, Central Mexico Materials: Clay, ceramic with pigment Technique: Carved with sharp instrument, roller designs Function and Content: The figurine was discovered in a farming culture and was likely used for burial purposes. it may represent duality or fertility., because it depicts the significance of the female figure. There is a lack of attention to the hands and feet. Form: two heads, traces of paint, enlarged female organs, curvilinear forms | |
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Terra (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Terra cotta fragment Date: c. 1000 B.C. Location: Solomon Islands, Reef Islands, Santa Cruz islands Materials: Red-slipped pottery Technique: Clay in water, colored with iron oxide, open-fire earthenware, incised to create images Function and Content: The fragments are from a pot which would have been used for storage or food. Pottery was significant in the seafaring Lapita culture, so it was often decorated with patterned or linear anthropomorphic motifs. Pots were often exchanged between families or classes. They could have been used to revere their ancestors or gods.. Form: geometric designs, radial symmetry |
| Title of Work: White temple and its ziggurat Date: c. 3500 - 3000 B.C. Period: Ancient Near East (Sumerian) Location: Uruk (Iraq) Materials: Mud brick Function and Content: A ziggurat is a raised platform with a steep stairway and four sloping sides, which are broken up by patterned bands. It was used as both a government building and a building for religious sacrifices. The temple contains a long hall and three chambers with entrances. It is dedicated to the sky god Anu and symbolizes authority. Form: rectangular, sloping, whitewashed | |
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Stats (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Statues of Votive Figures, from the Temple at Eshnunna Date: c. 2700 B.C. Period: Ancient Near East (Sumerian) Location: Eshnunna Materials: Carved gypsum with shell and black limestone, lapis lazuli Function and Content: Worshipers would set up images of themselves in front of larger gods as a devotional practice. The inscription asks for the god to look favorably upon the donor. This figure was probably dedicated to be continually attentive to sky god Anu. It represents a general worshipper praying to a god, but it is very individualistic.. Form: broad shoulders, V-shaped torso, wide eyes, folded hands, not naturalistic but realistic body parts, hierarchical scale of body components |
| Title of Work: Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur Date: c. 2600 - 2400 B.C. Period: Ancient Near East (Sumerian) Location: Ur (Iraq) Materials: Wood inlaid with shell, lapis lazuli, and red limestone Function and Content: This work was part of an elaborate burial ritual and was found in a grave. One side depicts peace and the other side depicts war, dividing people into societal classes. The materials show extensive trade. The function remains largely unknown - it may have been carried on a pole into battle. Form: Composite view, three registers, hierarchical scale, naturalistic war scene | |
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Law (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Law Code Stele of Hammurabi Date: 1750 B.C. Period: Ancient Near East (Babylonian) Location: Babylon (Iran) Materials: Basalt Function and Content: The stele (large carved object) contains a relief depicting the investiture of Hammurabi. The god Shamash is passing him the crook and flail, a symbol of authority. The image inspires respect for the laws by giving them a divine origin. The laws, written in Akkadian cuneiform, have to do with agriculture and domestic life. It is a record of written history and represents longevity. Form: composite view, hierarchical scale, high relief, position (sitting vs. standing), registers |
| Title of Work: Lamassu, citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin Date: c. 720 - 705 B.C. Period: Ancient Near East (Neo-Assyrian) Materials: Alabaster Function and Content: The statues are winged bulls with the head of men. They were guardian figures who protected the gates of the temple and the royal palace of Sargon II. They combine the natural with the supernatural and demonstrate the height of Assyrian power. They also had an architectural function - holding up the walls of the arch. Form: beard/hair ringlets, five legs depict movement, high relief | |
| Title of Work: The Audience Hall of Darius and Xerxes Date: c. 520 - 465 B.C. Period: Ancient Near East (Persian) Location: Persepolis, Iran Patron: Persian Kings (Darius I) Materials: Limestone Technique: high relief, bas-relief Function and Content: The apadana contains large columns (reminiscent of Greek architecture) topped with animals (bulls/lions) carved in high relief. The sides of the staircases are decorated with bas-reliefs depicting tributaries bringing wealth to the king. The Audience Hall may have served as a ceremonial building where the king would have greeted foreign visitors bringing tribute, or as a stronghold. The Persians were quite tolerant of the peoples they conquered, so the reliefs include all the people. they governed over Form: hypostyle (columns holding up roof) | |
| Title of Work: Palette of King Narmer Date: 3000 B.C. Period: Predynastic Egypt Location: Temple of Hierankonpolis Materials: Greywacke Technique: bas-relief Function and Content: Palettes are made for grinding minerals for creating cosmetics. This one was used for rituals/ceremonies and found underneath the Temple of Horus. It is a large version of a utilitarian object. The king is depicted on both sides as wearing crowns. There are also bulls and serpopards. The narrative may depict the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt, or the cycle of the sun and king's role in it. The function of the palette is to depict history in pictures, show piety to the god in the temple, and show the king's strength by demonstrating the defeat of his foes in both of the lower registers. Form: registers, king enlarged in profile view, hierarchical scale, duality and unification | |
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Giza (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Great Pyramids (Menkaura, Khafre, Khufu) and Great Sphinx Date: c. 2550 - 2490 B.C. Period: Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty Location: Giza, Egypt Patron: the kings Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaura Materials: Cut limestone Technique: Pulling blocks from quarry Function and Content: The pyramids were part of a royal mortuary complex.. Smaller pyramids and tombs are arranged alongside them. The solid staircases may represent the sun's rays. They follow the ben-ben stone tradition. Form: Khufu's pyramid was encased in white limestone and contains a king's chamber, queen's chamber, grand gallery, and seven boat pits. Khafre's pyramid has a smaller interior, but he also ordered the construction of a valley temple and the Great Sphinx. The Sphinx is a guardian statue, carved into bedrock. Menkaura's pyramid is the smallest but contained many decorative panels and treasures. |
| Title of Work: Seated scribe Date: c. 2620 - 2500 B.C. Period: Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty Location: Saqqara, Egypt Materials: Painted limestone Function and Content: The distinctive crystal eyes convey intelligence and awareness. He is not portrayed like a royal. The papyrus scroll suggests concern with the momentary rather than the eternal. This is a funerary sculpture meant for a tomb and to house his spirit (ka). Scribes were highly regarded in Egyptian culture. Form: cross-legged, high cheekbones, naturalistic, frontal, base was cut, rolling skin | |
| Title of Work: King Menkaura and queen Date: c. 2490 - 2472 B.C. Period: Old Kingdom, Fourth Dynasty Location: Valley Temple of Menkaure Materials: Greywacke Technique: Carving Function and Content: King Menkaure, with a royal headdress and fake beard, is youthful, broad-shouldered, and personalized. The queen has a garment and may represent fertility. Both have timeless expressions on their face. The sculpture was made to ensure the king's rebirth in the Afterlife and house his spirit (ka). Form: frontal, not as idealistic, stone base, both left foot forward | |
| Title of Work: Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall Date: c. 1550 B.C. and c. 1250 B.C. Period: New Kingdom, 18th and 19th Dynasties Location: Kamak, near Luxor, Egypt Materials: Cut sandstone and mud brick Function and Content: The temple has precincts for not only Amun-Re but also Mut and Montu.. Amun-Re's precinct had a tall obelisk, sacred lake, and "tent pole" columns in the Festival Temple of Thutmose III. The hypostyle hall includes tall pillars, painted ceilings, and clerestory lighting. The temple represents creation - the staircase was a rising mound, the temple roof was the sky, and the decorations on the columns represented a marsh-like environment. In addition, the columns themselves resembled blossoming papyrus stalks rising out of a primordial sea. The reliefs and hieroglyphs reminded the Egyptians of the pharaoh's divine power granted to control the earth. | |
| Title of Work: Mortuary temple of Hatshepsut Date: c. 1473 - 1458 B.C. Period: New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty Location: Near Luxor, Egypt Patron: Hatshepsut Materials: Temple - Sandstone, partially carved into a rock cliff, and red granite Statue - granite Function and Content: A statue of Amun-Re would be taken across the Nile into the topmost shrine in the mortuary temple. This statue of masculine Hatshepsut would be offering up gifts to him. She has the pharaoh headdress but round, feminine shoulders. The temple was built to represent stability after a period of chaos, and to empower Hatshepsut. Form: kneeling, offering gifts, headdress | |
| Title of Work: Tutankhamun's tomb, innermost coffin Date: c. 1323 B.C. Period: New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty Location: Valley of the Kings Patron: Tutankhamen Materials: Gold with inlay of enamel and semiprecious stones Technique: Hammered gold sheets Function and Content: The king is represented in divine form, holding the crook and flail. God are depicted on his coffin. The death mask protects the king on his journey to the Afterlife. | |
| Title of Work: Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters Date: c. 1353 - 1335 B.C. Period: New Kingdom (Amarna), 18th Dynasty Location: Private domestic altar Materials: Limestone Technique: Relief carving Function and Content: The style of Egyptian art changes because Akhenaton changes the state religion. This is a very tender family scene. The rays of the sun disk terminate in ankhs next to the king and queen's heads, giving them life. Form: elongated heads, thin arms, composite view of body, curvilinear forms | |
| Title of Work: Last Judgment of Hunefer, from his tomb (page from the Book of the Dead) Date: c. 1275 B.C. Period: New Kingdom, 19th Dynasty. Location: Hunefer's tomb Materials: Painted papyrus scroll Technique: painting Function and Content: The Book of the Dead was important for the Afterlife. Hunefer was an important scribe. He is depicted praising his good life to the gods. Anubis is weighing his heart to see if he may pass to the Afterlife. Horus introduces Hunefer to Osiris with an ankh. The scenes convey the Egyptian concepts of justice and morality. Form: registers, hieroglyphs | |
| Title of Work: Athenian agora Date: c. 600-150 B.C. Period: Archaic through Hellenistic Greek Location: Athens, Greece Materials: Plan Function and Content: At first, it was a market for selling and buying goods. Later, it became a public space for discourse and direct democracy. There are several administrative buildings as well as a few sacred shrines. | |
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Kouros (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Anavysos Kouros Date: c. 530 B.C. Period: Archaic Greek Location: Greece Patron: aristocratic family Materials: Marble with remnants of paint Technique: carving Function and Content: The kouros is a young, athletic, idealistic man, which was found in a cemetery. Kouroi could be grave markers, offerings to gods, or represent a god. In particular, this figure would have memorialized a young man who died in battle. He is naked to demonstrate his anatomy and muscularity and celebrate the human figure. Form: swelling of different body parts, parts are more integrated, weight evenly distributed, braided hair, headband, archaic smile, left foot forward |
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Peple (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Peplos Kore from the Acropolis Date: c. 530 B.C. Period: Archaic Greek Location: Acropolis Materials: Marble, painted details Function and Content: Korai were statues of young maidens, usually offerings to Athena., or representations of goddesses. She may be wearing a peplos, or another garment underneath. She was originally bright painted and may have represented fertility. She has a transcendent expression on her face. Form: left arm straight out, braided hair, archaic smile, movement of legs beneath drapery |
| Artist: Niobid Painter Title of Work: Niobides Krater Date: c. 460-450 B.C. Period: Classical Greek Materials: Clay Technique: Red-figure technique (white highlights) Function and Content: It is a calyx-krater, a large punchbowl the Greeks used for mixing wine and water.. It may be an attempt to translate wall-paintings to a circular surface. In one side, Niobe is being punished for bragging about her children being better than those of Leto. Apollo and Artemis kill all of her children. On the other side of vase, Herakles stands in the middle. Soldiers are asking him for protection in battle,. Form: stiff figures, illusion of space, figures on different level, composite view, sense of depth | |
| Artist: Polykleitos Title of Work: Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) Date: c. 450 - 440 B.C. Period: Early Classical Greek Location: Pompeii Materials: Roman marble, Greek bronze Function and Content: Polykleitos wanted to demonstrate that it was possible to create a perfect human form based on mathematics by creating this Canon. This is a representation of a more naturalistic yet idealized human. Romans enjoyed recreating these sculptures for their homes and leisure. Form: contrapposto (opposite arm and leg weight-bearing), movement, idealized | |
| ACROPOLIS PART ! Artist: iktinos, Phidias and Kallikrates Title of Work: Date: c. 447 - 410 B.C. Period: Classical Greek Location: Athens, Greece Patron: Pericles (funds from Delian league) Materials: Marble Technique: Sculpting Function and Content: The Parthenon was dedicated to Athena. Poseidon (saltwater) and Athena (olive tree) vie to become the patron of Athens. It is a Doric temple and treasury with Ionian elements, once brightly painted. There were sculptures in the pediments, metopes, and a frieze. The pediments depict the contest between Poseidon and Athena, and the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. The metopes depict battle stories: Lapiths vs. Centaurs, Greeks vs. Amazons, Greeks vs. Trojans, gods vs. giants. They may be metaphors for the Greeks vs. the Persians., and show the triumph of order over chaos. The frieze depicts the Panathenaic religious procession (women make peplos for Athena's olive wood statue). | |
| ACROPOLIS PART II Function and Content: The ionic temple to Athena Nike housed a statue of Victory,. The relief of Nike adjusting her sandal on the exterior of the parapet shows her bent form. Form: naturalism of body form, bottom of pediment serves as horizon lines, drapery follows form of the body, implied lines, faces in profile view, brightly painted, curvilinear forms, young women stand in contrapposto | |
| Artist: Kallimachos (?) Title of Work: Grave stele of Hegeso Date: c. 410 B.C. Period: High Classical Greek Patron: Aristocratic family Materials: Marble and paint Function and Content: The stele is a funerary sculpture, a grave marker. Hegeso is being presented a box of jewelry by her slave girl. She is in a domestic architectural setting. Her feet do not touch the ground, but rest on a pedestal. Form: relief sculpture, drapery follows form of the body, foreshortening of foot, idealization of proper role of women | |
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Winged (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Winged Victory of Samothrace Date: c. 190 B.C. Period: Hellenistic Greek Location: Samothrace Materials: Marble Function and Content: The statue was discovered in an open-air sanctuary, standing on a stone ship. The energy and movement of the statue symbolize her swiftness in delivering the news of victory. Folds in her drapery play with the wind. Form: large scale (nine feet high), twisting torso and abdomen, plays with texture and light of the environment |
| Title of Work: Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon Date: c. 175 B.C. Period: Hellenistic Greek Location: Asia Minor (present-day Turkey) Patron: King Eumanes II of Pergamon Materials: Marble (architecture and sculpture) Function and Content: A general builds a garrison on a hilltop and founds the kingdom of Pergamon, and his people build the altar and friezes. The sculptures radiate expressiveness and drama. The gods and goddesses are fighting the giants for supremacy. Athena fights a giant while Nike flies up to place a crown on her head. Zeus fights giants with eagles and lightning bolts. The altar would have allowed the Greeks to worship their gods and admire their strength and cleverness. It may also have praised the successes of the Attalid Dynasty against the Gauls. Form: serpentine bodies, implied diagonal lines, high relief | |
| Title of Work: Seated boxer Date: c. 100 B.C. Period: Hellenistic Greek Materials: Bronze Technique: Lost-wax casting to mold bronze into a hollow form of a figure Function and Content: This figure is not young and idealized, because he has been defeated. He provokes a sense of pathos. Form: legs splayed out, copper inlaid to represent wounds, broken nose, naturalistic pose | |
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Alex (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Alexander Mosaic from the House of Faun, Pompeii Date: c. 100 B.C. Period: Republican Roman Location: Pompeii Materials: Stone and glass Technique: Mosaic Function and Content: This piece captures the turning point in the battle between Darius III of Persia and Alexander the Great. There is empty space on the top. The piece details the emotion and shock Darius feels and the god-like power of Alexander. It was installed in the floor of a house in Pompeii. Form: foreshortening of horse, implied diagonal lines, warmer and cooler colors |
| Title of Work: Sarcophagus of the Spouses Date: c. 520 B.C. Period: Etruscan Original Location: Cerveteri necropolis Patron: elite family Materials: Terra cotta Technique: burnishing tomb after leather-hard stage Function and Content: The tomb was found in a cemetery, and is considered the most important Etruscan work found in a tomb. It is shaped to represent a dining couch with pillows. Most Etruscan tombs contain art that evokes revelry - perhaps to symbolize the funerary banquet. The two figures have a sense of intimacy and demonstrate the importance of the woman. The sarcophagus was created in four different pieces. Form: outstretched arms, stylized bodies, smile, braided hair, relaxed, elongated figures, high relief, brightly painted | |
| Title of Work: Tomb of the Triclinium Date: c. 480 - 470 B.C. Period: Etruscan Location: Tarquinia, Italy Materials: Tufa and fresco Function and Content: The Tomb of the Triclinium was a chamber tomb, designed to hold the deceased and earthly goods. The main wall depicts people enjoying a banquet and reclining on dining couches. The left and right walls depict people playing musical instruments and dancing. These demonstrate the overall joyful tone of an Etruscan funeral. A funeral allowed family members to share a last meal with the deceased and get others to remember their socio-economic position. Form: gender depicted by color, checkered pattern, registers, stylistic, stiff figures | |
| Title of Work: Temple of Minerva and sculpture of Apollo Date: c. 510 - 500 B.C. Period: Roman Location: Veii, Italy Materials: wood, mud brick, tufa Function and Content: The Etruscans originally worshiped their gods out in nature. The Greeks finally influenced them to create temples, but they did not build them out of long-lasting materials. The Etruscan gods were very similar to the Greek gods but embodied Etruscan beliefs. Form: deep front porch with widely spaced Tuscan columns (Doric columns with bases), three room configuration of cella (indicates trio of gods), high podium, single entrance, sculptures on ridge of temple roof, brightly colored central panel pictures | |
| Artist: Vulca (?) Title of Work: Temple of Minerva and sculpture of Apollo Date: c. 510 - 500 B.C. Period: Roman Location: Veii, Italy Materials: terra cotta Function and Content: The statue may have been part of a mythic narrative, where Apollo is fighting Hercules over a Golden Hind. It was on display on the temple's roof to be seen from a distance. Form: braided hair, stiff figure, outstretched arms, bright colors, contrapposto, idealism, beginnings of wet drapery, Archaic smile, stylistic dark skin, rounded, broad shoulders | |
| Title of Work: House of the Vettii Date: c. second century B.C., rebuilt c. 62 - 79 A.D. Period: Imperial Roman Location: Pompeii, Italy Materials: Cut stone and fresco Function and Content: The Roman town house (domus) was buried after the eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D. 79. It was inhabited by the Vettii brothers, who were originally slaves. They demonstrated their wealth by placing strongholds and paintings in the atrium. The atrium was the center of daily life rituals, such as the patron-client system. While visiting his patron for support, the client would catch a glimpse of his wealth. Form: According to Vitruvius' canon, the atrium (central reception hall) is surrounded by cubicula and alae. The tablinium (father's office) connects the atrium to the peristylium (private part of house). The peristylium contains the culina and triclinium. However, the Vettii house lacks a tablinium and contains two atria. | |
| Title of Work: House of the Vettii Date: c. second century B.C., rebuilt c. 62 - 79 A.D. Period: Imperial Roman Location: Pompeii, Italy Materials: Cut stone and fresco Technique: wall painting Function and Content: The paintings demonstrate that the owners were interested in interior design and showing off their wealth. They were either Third Style or Fourth Style wall paintings. A sense of depth is demonstrated by placing the paintings in architectural space. Form: winged love gods associating in different tasks, brightly colored, registers, gilded ornamental molding, patterns, lines | |
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Head (binary/octet-stream)
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Title of Work: Head of a Roman patrician Date: c. 75 - 50 B.C. Period: Late Republican Roman Location: Otricoli Materials: Marble Technique: Painted Function and Content: This veristic male portrait represents the ideals of the Roman Republic. The face evokes a sense of seriousness and demonstrates this elder's wisdom. He would have been part of the Senate, a council of elders. Sometimes, middle-age men would be depicted in this way, with exaggerated features, to advance themselves in the socio-economic world. This kind of head would have aided the man's public image and symbolized his virtues. Form: realistic, wrinkled, toothless, frontal, hooked nose, furrowed brow, polychromed |
| Title of Work: Augustus of Prima Porta Date: early first century B.C. Period: Imperial Roman Location: Villa of Livia at Prima Porta Patron: Augustus Materials: Painted marble Function and Content: This may have been a copy of a statue used in a public environment to demonstrate Augustus' authority. He pretended to be trying to be bringing back the Senate, but he was really becoming the first emperor. The statue portrays Augustus as a divinity and draws from Greek elements. He traces his ancestry back to Cupid, half-brother of Aeneas. The dolphin represents his conquest of Egypt. Gods are portrayed on his breastplate. One scene shows the Parthians giving back standards to the Romans. His outstretched arm indicates his significance as a military conqueror. It may allude to the Pax Romana. Form: proportions follow canon, contrapposto, outstretched arm, idealized | |
| Title of Work: Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) Date: 70 - 80 A.D. Period: Imperial Roman Location: Rome, Italy Patron: Vespasian Materials: Stone and concrete Function and Content: The amphitheater was constructed by Vespasian, a Flavian emperor, as a gift back to the Romans after the terrible reign of Nero. He may have used treasures from the Temple of Jerusalem to fund this project. Different social classes would enter though different entryways to get to their seats (emperor - lowest, slaves - highest). People came for animal hunts, gladiatorial combats, and execution of prisoners. Form: different levels have different column orders (Tuscan, Ionic, Corinthian), entryways with inscriptions, two Greek theaters put together, barrel vaults. The original state was made up of wooden planks and a series of trapdoors. The people in the lower seats would be protected by netting. | |
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Forum (binary/octet-stream)
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Artist: Apollodorus of Damascus Title of Work: Forum of Trajan Date: 106-112 A.D. (forum and markets) Period: Imperial Roman Location: Rome, Italy Patron: Trajan Materials: brick, concrete (forum and markets) Function and Content: Imperial fora were important public spaces constructed by emperors to highlight their ideology through art and architecture. They were political, social, civic, and administrative centers. The largest forum, the Forum of Marcus Ulpius Traianus, is located just below the Quirinal Hill. The Area Fori was funded with proceeds from the campaigns against the Dacians, so it probably displayed military standards and statues of Dacians and Romans. There was originally a bronze equestrian statue of Trajan in the center and an arch at the entryway. Form: The stone forum consists of a main square surrounded by porticoes and exedrae. The Basilica Ulpia stands in front of the two brick libraries, and contains a clerestory, revealing Egyptian influences. It features highly colored Corinthian columns and gilded bronze roof tiles. |
| Artist: Apollodorus of Damascus Title of Work: Forum of Trajan Date: 106-112 A.D. (forum and markets) Period: Imperial Roman Location: Rome, Italy Patron: Trajan Materials: brick, concrete (forum and markets) Function and Content: The Markets of Trajan were an urban mercantile complex. Form: The Markets of Trojan is a dense, multi-story building, with groin vaults of concrete. Groin vaults are two intersecting barrel vaults. There are offices linked to the main hallway by barrel vaults and buttresses. | |
| Artist: Apollodorus of Damascus Title of Work: Column of Trajan Date: 113 A.D. Period: Imperial Roman Location: Rome, Italy Patron: Trajan Materials: marble (column) Technique: Carved blocks of marble and carved reliefs over them Function and Content: The Column of Trajan is a symbol of the emperor's wealth because the colorful marble came from all over the empire. The 22 different layers of the column spiral up, narrating the Roman campaigns against the Dacians. In one particular scene, the Romans are constructing fortifications and bridges to cross the Danube.. The base of the column depicts the Dacians' defeated weapons. and contains an oak wreath, a victory crown. It reflects on the Romans' gift of civilization and ingenuity. Form: bas-relief frieze, interior staircase with windows | |
| Title of Work: Pantheon Date: 118 - 125 A.D. Period: Imperial Roman Location: Rome, Italy Patron: Hadrian Materials: concrete with stone facing Function and Content: The consul Agrippa had commissioned a building on the site before. The Pantheon was a temple of the gods as well as a Christian Church. It originally contained sculptures of the gods. The concrete walls of the barrel support the pressure of the dome, while the interior columns are simply decorative. The oculus makes the movement of the heavens visible. Form: marble Corinthian columns with no fluting, rectilinear porch with bronze doors, radial building, large circular space, geometric patterns of circles and rectangles, frieze of false windows doesn't align with rectangles of dome, brightly colored marble, coffers support weight of concrete | |
| Title of Work: Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus Date: c. 250 A.D. Period: Late Imperial Roman Location: tomb near Porta Tiburtina Materials: Marble Function and Content: Noble-looking Roman soldiers defeat barbarian Goths. The hero sits calmly on his wild horse at the top of the relief, while his comrades fight with expressions of seriousness. The Romans are carved in smooth marble, while the Goths are more roughly depicted. The unusual design of the sarcophagus may be associated with civil war and the instability of the empire after the reign of Augustus. Form: deep relief, sense of depth, figures get smaller going down, alternation of light and dark, no realistic space, diagonal lines | |
| Title of Work: Catacombs of Priscilla Date: c. 200 - 400 A.D. Period: Late Antique Empire Location: Rome, italy Materials: Excavated tufa and fresco Function and Content: Early Christians were buried in the catacombs and met there in times of persecution. The catacombs contains early images of the Madonna and Child. The Greek chapel, which contains Roman First-Style paintings and Old and New Testament references, held several sarcophagi for Priscilla's family (early Egyptian practice) and was adjacent to her basement. The Cubiculum of the Veil shows the same woman three times - getting married, giving birth, and in orant. Christ is represented as the Good Shepherd in contrapposto. Form: long, narrow passageways with horizontal niches (loculi) to hold bodies, large rooms (cubicula), burial inscriptions, Christian symbols, long amorphous bodies with clothing, large hands, naturalistic body, symmetrical, educational, beginning of Christian iconography | |
| Title of Work: Santa Sabina Date: c. 420 A.D. Period: Late Antique Empire Location: Rome, Italy Materials: Brick and stone, wooden roof Function and Content: The basilica was constructed on the Aventine hill, just like pagan temples were built on other hills. Constructed with the purpose of holding many people, it speaks to the new beginning of Rome. after Constantine legalized Christianity. The carved wooden doorway contains scenes from the Old and New Testaments. Images above the repurposed Greek columns (spolia) depict the chalice and paten. The glass tile of the mosaics make the walls appear to float. and would have impressed viewers. Form: longitudinal axis with a focus on the altar, arches lining nave create visual rhythm, open, clear space, clerestory lighting, elaborately carved screen, columns reflect structural stability | |
| Title of Work: Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well and Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis Date: early 500's A.D. Period: Early Byzantine Europe Patron: Royal commission? Materials: Illuminated manuscript (tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum) Function and Content: Illustrations allow the reader to contemplate the story and shows piety of the owners. Jacob wakes up and leads his family across the river. He meets a man, who is an angel, and wrestles with him to bless him. God intervenes to help Eliezer find a wife for Isaac. Rebecca is the woman willing to help his camels drink water. The colonnade and walled city is heavily abstracted. Form: silver text, classical register, linear narrative, drapery of women, columns under bridge, abstraction, skewed perspective | |
| Title of Work: San Vitale Date: c. 530 A.D. Period: Early Byzantine Europe Location: Ravenna, Italy Patron: Bishop Ecclesius Materials: Brick, marble, and stone veneer, mosaic Function and Content: The focus of the church is not an apse, but a central space surrounded by an ambulatory and an adjacent narthex. The church is octagonal with a smaller octagonal dome that rises higher. Layers of columns are stacked on top of each other and form undulating patterns, and dozens of windows illuminate the interior mosaics. The columns form a new order to represent a new style of Christian iconography. Work on the Church began after Justinian took Ravenna from the Ostrogoths. He wanted to show that he still was the head of the Church in the west, although he lived in Constantinople. | |
| SAN VITALE PART 2 Technique: tiles set into wall at angles to help light reflect off Function and Content: In the apse, Christ is seated between two angels, holding Revelation, handing a crown to St. Vitalis. Justinian, holding the bread bowl, and Theodora are depicted in mosaics to reassert their role over religious belief in Ravenna. The Church, the emperor, and the military are united. Theodora wears incredibly ornate jewelry and carries a chalice. Form: frontal figures, not realistic, divine right to rule halos, golden sky, skewed perspective, Christianity over barbarism | |
| Artists: Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus Title of Work: Hagia Sophia Date: c. 530 A.D. Period: Early Byzantine Europe Location: Constantinople Patron: Justinian Materials: Brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer Function and Content: Justinian built this church to keep his people from rioting and to express his authority. This building unites the spiritual part of the empire (patriarch) with the government. Light streams in from windows under the dome.. Rhythms set the floor and dome in motion. This period was leading up to iconoclasm, so only crosses and other decorative patterns can be found. Arabic calligraphy, but almost no Christian iconography survives. Justinian imported colorful marble from around the empire and installed them using revetment.. Western Christians sacked Constantinople and Hagia Sophia of relics on a Crusade. Form: longitudinal/central basilica, with an apse dome on pendentives supported by four arches and two half-domes, four minarets | |
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Title of Work: Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George Date: 500s or early 600s B.C. Period: Early Byzantine Europe Materials: Encaustic on wood Location: St. Catherine's Monastery, Sinai, Egypt Function and Content: The Virgin Mary is surrounded by two soldier saints and two angels. The ambiguity of space allows the viewer to appreciate the painting's divine content. Our eyes move from the passive figures of the saints to the heads of the angels to the heavens. This icon would have been a private devotional object. Like the Romans, the Byzantines created paintings on small wooden panels. Form: naturalistic drapery, halos (sign of divinity), spatial recession to draw figures forward, modeling of angel necks, elevation, hierarchy of bodies |
| Title of Work: Great Mosque Date: c. 785-786 A.D. Period: Islam, Umayyad Dynasty Location: Cordoba, Spain Patron: Umayyads Materials: Stone masonry Function and Content: The Umayyads were overthrown from their home in Syria and escaped to southern Spain. They commissioned the expansive hypostyle prayer hall, with a focal point at an arched mihrab on a wall that faces Mecca. This horseshoe-style arch was introduced to Muslim culture by the Visigoths. The Great Mosque features a dome with crisscrossing ribs and golden mosaics. Form: courtyard with a fountain in the middle, covered walkway, minaret, magnification of interior space through symmetry and rhythm, Visigothic and Roman columns to raise ceiling height | |
| Title of Work: Great Mosque Date: c. 785-786 A.D. Period: Umayyad Dynasty Location: Cordoba, Spain Patron: Umayyads Materials: Stone masonry Function and Content: The Great Mosque demonstrates the presence and permanence of the Umayyads in Cordoba. The place of worship was appropriated from a Christian site, indicating that they ended to replace Christianity with Islam. The repetition observed within the mosque alludes to the repetition of prayer (five times a day) in the life of a Muslim. In addition, the golden tesserae bands of calligraphy allude to Byzantine mosaic work. | |
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Title of Work: Pyxis of al-Mughira Date: c. 968 A.D. Period: Umayyad Dynasty Materials: Ivory cut from elephant tusk, traces of inlaid jade Function and Content: The pyxis, a cylindrical box used to carry perfumes and cosmetics, was a gift to the young caliph al-Mughira, for his coming of age. It contains four medallions surrounded by figures and animals to be hunted. Men holding the specter, flask, and fan represent the Umayyads and Abassids. Ivory was important part of the Mediterranean art tradition, and this pyxis came from a Spanish royal workshop. The pyxis would have been rich in ornamentation and iconography depicting the supremacy of the Umayyads. Form: relief carving, calligraphic inscriptions |
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Title of Work: Golden Haggadah (The Plagues of Egypt, Scenes of Liberation, and Preparation for Passover) Date: c. 1320 A.D. Period: Late Medieval / Romanesque / Early Gothic Location: Spain Materials: Illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum) Patron: wealthy Jewish family Function and Content: The manuscript depicts the story of the Passover, which the Jews would have related at a seder, a ritual meal. A haggadah usually included the prayers of the rituals and used images to aid the narrative. They were exempt from the graven images rule. It may also have been used to show this family's wealth.. Form: gold-leaf background, Gothic elements such as long, flowing bodies and architectural details |
| Title of Work: Alhambra Date: 1354-1391 A.D. Period: Nasrid Dynasty Location: Granada, Spain Patron: Muhammad I Materials: Whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding Function and Content: The Comares Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal Palace were connected by gardens and walkways which could be blocked in case of a threat. Gardens are divided into quadrants by channels of water, similarly to the Taj Mahal gardens. The colorful Comares facade stands behind a courtyard and fountain, and its tower contains an illuminated throne room.. The Palace of the Lions contains a courtyard with a covered patio circling an elaborate fountain, which recalls the Gardens of Paradise. Inside, there are vaulted ceilings and high alcoves.. The Partal Palace contains a long portico. The Generalife is a summer estate with elaborate gardens referenced in the Koran. The entire complex functions as a citadel and a residence. Form: double-arched windows, cooling quality of water, rhombus geometric forms, calligraphy, muqarnas, decorative arches, stuccowork on walls | |
| Title of Work: Merovingian looped fibulae Date: Mid 500's A.D. Period: Early Medieval Patron: owners Materials: Silver gilt worked in filigree Technique: pierced openwork, cloisonné (inlaid semiprecious garnets and other stones) Function and Content: Made popular by Roman military campaigns, fibulae were often found in barbarian graves. These ones form an intricate crossbow and Christian cross pattern. They include eagles (sun/St. John) and little fish. Form: body/pin/catch | |
| Artist: Bishop Eadfrith Title of Work: Lindisfarne Gospels: St. Matthew, cross-carpet page; St. Luke portrait page; St. Luke incipit page Date: c. 700 A.D. Period: Early Medieval (Hiberno-Saxon) Materials: Illuminated manuscript (ink, pigments, and gold on vellum) Function and Content: The monks from the Lindisfarne monastery often traveled back to Italy and brought back Roman ideas and materials for their codices. Cross-carpet pages form elaborate cross patterns with small animal heads between the Gospels. St. Matthew's cross carpet page contains ribbons with snake-like creatures and is somewhat stylized. St. Luke's incipit page features a feline swallowing eight birds, a blue heron, and snakes and uses negative spaces to express part of the opening word "quoniam". St. Luke is depicted in a flat and linear manner in his portrait page, with a golden halo and a body receding into space. Form: metalwork designs, abstract, stylized, naturalism | |
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Title of Work: Church of Sainte-Foy Date: Church: c. 1050–1130 A.D.; Reliquary of Saint Foy: 800's A.D. with later additions Period: Romanesque Location: Conques, France Materials: Stone and paint (church); gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood (reliquary) Function and Content: The Church was part of an abbey on a important pilgrimage route. The tympanum above the doorway depicts the Last Judgment, including a House of Paradise and chaotic scenes of Hell. During that time, Christ was a figure who inspired fear, so his central position would have terrified pilgrims. People were eager to visit the reliquary of Saint Faith and donated expensive stones and other spolia for her statue. The church was constructed so that pilgrims could pass through the ambulatory and radiating chapels without disrupting ongoing Masses. Form: barrel-vaulted nave with arches, cruciform plan with transept exits |
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Title of Work: Bayeux Tapestry Date: c. 1066 - 1080 A.D. Period: Romanesque (English or Norman) Location: Canterbury Patron: Odo, Bishop of Bayeux Materials: Embroidery on linen Function and Content: The Bayeux Tapestry contains 75 scenes commemorating the struggle for the throne of England between William, Duke of Normandy, and Harold, Earl of Wessex. at the Battle of Hastings. It was probably created from a Norman point of view. There are several references to the practices of the time periods, including dining, construction, and battle tactics. It ends with the killing of Harold. The embroidery commemorates the Normans' victory and gives a semi-accurate depiction of the war. Form: Anglo-Saxon needlework, registers (middle narrative), diagonal lines, unrealistic figures, no depth perception |
| Title of Work: Chartres Cathedral Date: Original - c. 1145 - 1155 A.D.; reconstructed - about 50 years later Period: Gothic Location: Chartres, France Materials: Limestone, stained glass Function and Content: Many pilgrims came to Chartres to show their devotion for the Virgin Mary's tunic. Statuary reflects the ideals of wisdom coming from the School of Chartres. Colonnades which support the archivolts feature jamb figures (kings and queens) which invite people inside. The tympanums depict Christ before the Incarnation, the Second Coming of Christ, and scenes of the Virgin Mary.. The east facade has a porch projecting further out, and jamb figures that seem less isolated and more lively. Form: rose window, Romanesque round arches, strong walls and piers to support rib vaulting, symmetric symbolism, hierarchic scale, interdependence between architecture and sculpture, abstracted, elongated figures | |
| CHARTRES CATHEDRAL PART 2 Function and Content: The church features a longitudinal basilica plan, with aisles flanking the nave to facilitate pilgrim movement. A fire nearly burned down the whole church, but the tunic of the Virgin Mary was saved. This was interpreted as a miracle indicating that an even more beautiful church should be built. In the later Gothic church, wall space was opened up so stained glass windows in the clerestory could be enlarged and radiate a sense of the divine. The Our Lady of the Beautiful Window is featured in the apse of the church. Form: three-tiered elevation (nave arcade with elegant columns, triforium, and clerestory with lancet windows and oculi), long piers, flying buttresses, frontal figures with red and blue colors, short transept, ambulatory | |
| Title of Work: Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France, Scenes from the Apocalypse from Bibles moralisées Date: c. 1225 - 1245 A.D. Period: Gothic Location: France / Spain Patron: French royalty Materials: Illuminated manuscript (ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum). Function and Content: Moralized bibles contain large numbers of illustrations in roundels, accompanying a biblical and commentary text The first page depicts St. John's Revelations from God. Oftentimes, the pictures compare biblical enemies to corrupt priests and Jews. The second page is a dedication page to Blanche and King Louis IX. The fleur-de-lis symbolizes the royal right to rule. The poses of the two rulers are similar to those found in the tympanums of churches depicting Mary and Christ. A scribe monk and an illustrator are shown in the bottom register of the page. The Bible was probably intended as an educational text for King Louis and his siblings. Form: symbolism, abstract, contrasting colors, trefoil arches, stylized buildings, medieval stained-glass windows, registers | |
| Title of Work: Röttgen Pietà Date: c. 1300 - 1325 A.D. Period: Late Gothic Materials: Painted wood Function and Content: The Pieta depicts the Passion of Christ and focuses on the interaction between Mary and her son. A more human aspect of Mary is represented here. The blood and crown of thorns bring the scene alive to the viewer. It allows audiences to connect their sufferings to those of Mary and reflects the mysticism of the time, where the sculpture would be the object of focus during prayer. Pieta sculptures were common in German abbeys. Form: skinny, contorted body, gruesome wounds, not idealized | |
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Artist: Giotto di Bondone Title of Work: Arena (Scrovegni) Chapel, including Lamentation Date: 1300 A.D. Period: Late Medieval Location: Padua, Italy Patron: Scrovegni family Materials: Brick, lapis lazuli, and fresco Technique: trompe l'oeil, secco fresco Function and Content: The chapel was constructed for private devotion and as an offering for the Scrovegni family's sin of usury so that they could still reach Heaven. In the Last Judgment fresco, Scrovegni is depicted as passing on the chapel to the three Mary's. The three tier registers narrate the life, death, and Passion of Christ, along with faux marble panels. The entire interior of the chapel is covered with fresco. In the Lamentation fresco, the characters display humanism and real grief. Form: bulky drapery, registers, rich colors, diagonal lines, some characters not frontal, foreshortening |
| Artist: Workshop of Robert Campin Title of Work: Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece) Date: 1427-1432 A.D. Period: Early Renaissance Patron: Wealthy donors (kneeling on left panel) Materials: Oil on oak wood Function and Content: Campin was from the luxurious Burgundian Netherlands. Commissions were increasing due to prosperity across Europe. Used for private devotion, the altarpiece is small enough to be folded up and features traditional living room decorations and a hortus conclusus. A figure carrying the cross coming towards Mary represents the Holy Spirit. Joseph is making mousetraps, which foreshadow Christ's death. The donors are kneeling in a hortus conclusus. Form: texture and light, incredible detail, complex, thick drapery folds, no correct perspective, naturalism, symbolism | |
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Artist: Brunelleschi Title of Work: Pazzi Chapel Date: c. 1429 - 1461 A.D. Period: Early Renaissance Location: Basilica de Santa Croce - Florence, Italy Patron: Pazzi family Materials: Masonry Technique: Baking clay Function and Content: The Pazzi chapel was constructed in a central rectangular plan, and was the meeting hall (chapter house) of local Franciscan monks. Therefore, it demonstrates the Pazzi family's wealth and generosity. The reliefs in the roundels depict the four evangelists. Pietra serena is a stone used as a decorative element on the walls. The architecture demonstrates an interest in Roman classicism and its application to the Renaissance. Form: barrel vault, dome resting on pendentives, roundels with terracotta reliefs, oculus, geometrical patterns, Corinthian columns, fluted pilasters |
| Artist: Van Eyck Title of Work: The Arnolfini Portrait Date: c. 1434 A.D. Period: Early Renaissance Location: Netherlands Patron: Italian merchant from Bruges Materials: Oil on wood Function and Content: The artwork is intended to show off the patron's wealth, from his clothing to his furnishings. Although it was originally interpreted as wedding scene, it is probably simply a double portrait of an already married couple. Their shoes are taken off and only one candle is lit, which symbolizes sacredness. In the mirror with scenes of Christ's passion, just below the artist's signature, two visitors have come into the room. The dog represents loyalty, and oranges represent wealth, as they were very expensive. Form: richness of color, curling of drapery, naturalism, attention to detail, highlights and shadows, elongated figures, not correct perspective | |
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Artist: Donatello Title of Work: David Date: c. 1440 - 1460 A.D. Period: Early Renaissance Location: Florence (courtyard of Medici palace) Patron: Medici family Materials: Bronze (hollow) Technique: Lost-wax casting Function and Content: This was the first freestanding nude sculpture since the height of classicism. It signifies a return to admiration of the body and not just of the soul. David is standing on the severed head of Goliath with the monster's sword in hand. The Florentians felt close to this statue because they thought they had defeated the Duke Milan with the help of God. The Medici also identify themselves as being the city of Florence. Form: contrapposto, sense of movement, youthfulness vs. gruesomeness, humanistic |
| Artist: Alberti Title of Work: Palazzo Rucellai Date: c. 1450 A.D. Period: Early Renaissance Location: Florence, Italy Patron: Rucellai family Materials: Stone masonry Technique: trabeated architecture Function and Content: The building was constructed to show civic pride in Florence and loyalty to the Medici family. Based on the Medici palace, this building places emphasis on geometry and horizontality. The building has four floors, which get smaller and more intricate as they rise. Between each floor, there are entablature friezes that recall Roman classicism. Form: Roman use of different column orders for each level, weightless pilasters, cross-hatching of stone, post and lintel, rounded arches | |
| Artist: Fra Filippo Lippi Title of Work: Madonna and Child with Two Angels Date: c. 1465 A.D. Period: Early Renaissance Patron: Medici family Materials: Tempera on wood Function and Content: The Medici comissioned this painting to demonstrate their piety and wealth. This more humanistic and realistic depiction of the Christ child and Mary contains very simple circular halos with a naturalistic landscape. It deviates from the frontal Byzantine figures and golden background. The angel figures are mischievous and playful. During this time, the Florentians were very proud of their city, and desired to demonstrate their affluence. Form: atmospheric perspective, coiffured hair, delicate youthful faces, bulky solid bodies | |
| Artist: Botticelli Title of Work: Birth of Venus Date: c. 1484 - 1486 A.D. Period: Early Renaissance Materials: Tempera on canvas Function and Content: This is a very important work of art because it is the first to depict a mythological subject / female nude since the height of classicism. Two wind sprites blow the wind towards Venus, who is being born full-grown from the scallop shell. The repeating patterns in the sea waves remind us of the flat canvas. The painting also recall's the artists interest in Neoplatonic ideas of love and beauty, and was intended to be educational/mythological. Form: contrapposto, rich colors, movement | |
| Artist: Leonardo da Vinci Title of Work: Last Supper Date: c. 1494 - 1498 A.D. Period: High Renaissance Location: Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan Materials: oil and tempera Function and Content: Monks would silently contemplate this fresco in the refectory during meals. The apostles are divided into four groups of three, and Christ's body forms an equilateral triangle, a very stable form. The vanishing point is above His head. Form: sfumato, chiaroscuro, linear perspective, atmospheric perspective, expressive faces and gestures, light and shade, transcendence of Christ, diagonal lines, windows serve as halo | |
| Artist: Durer Title of Work: Adam and Eve Date: 1504 A.D. Period: High Renaissance Technique: Engraving Function and Content: While the contrapposto poses of the frontal figures embody naturalism, the twists of the necks are artificial. However, Durer is still able to show his mastery of Vitruvian ideals. The parrot represents the Virgin Mary, and the other animals represent the four humors. This woodcut was created after the advent of mechanical reproduction, so Durer could spread his ideas throughout the world. There are many distinct German influences in the landscaping. | |
| Artist: Michelangelo Title of Work: Sistine Chapel Ceiling and Altar Wall Frescoes Date: Early 1500's Period: High Renaissance Patron: Pope Julius II Technique: Fresco Function and Content: At the Sistine Chapel, the Pope holds Mass, and the cardinals hold conclave. Michelangelo was primarily a sculptor, so his frescoes seem to "carve" figures out of paint. Nine Biblical scenes across the central ceiling panels, framed by faux architectural elements, depict events from Genesis. The Deluge depicts a complex narrative incorporating the story of Noah's Ark.. The Delphic Sybil depicts a monumental soothsayer with weight, balance, and proportional harmony. On the back wall, the Last Judgment demonstrates Christ, depicted in a dynamic and muscular pose, separating the blessed from the damned. This painting also demonstrates the effect the Reformation had on Michelangelo (after his break in 1510). Form: weight/bulk of bodies, drapery, circular composition, influence of Greco-Roman sculptural style, idealization, attention to human anatomy | |
| Artist: Raphael Title of Work: School of Athens Date: Early 1500's Period: High Renaissance Location: Stanza della Segnatura Patron: Pope Julius II Technique: Fresco Function and Content: The walls of this papal library exhibit the four branches of knowledge. This one signifies philosophy. Plato is standing beside Aristotle, his student, surrounded by other great thinkers. On the left side are the philosophers concerned with theoretical and ethereal issues. On the right side are philosophers concerned with physical and concrete issues. Raphael includes a self-portrait. Form: coffered barrel vaults, pilasters, geometric floor, bulky figures, classical sculptures, linear perspective, divides figures into groups | |
| Artist: Matthias Grunewald Title of Work: Isenheim altarpiece Date: Early 1500's Period: High Renaissance Location: Isenheim hospital of Antonine monks, near Colmar, France Materials: Oil on wood Function and Content: The carved and gilded sculptures in the heart of the altarpiece depicts St. Anthony, Jerome, and Augustine. In the left closed panel, the macabre scene of Christ's Crucifixion is displayed, with the Virgin Mary and Mary Magdalene weeping. In the right open panels, the Annunciation, Madonna and Child, and Resurrection are depicted. The two predellas show Lamentation scenes. There are also personal idiosyncratic visions which include the Virgin Mary. The Isenheim altarpiece was intended to be a focal point of devotion and prayer in the Isenheim hospital. Form: symmetrical, mathematical, mandorla, dramatic, humanistic | |
| Artist: Pontormo Title of Work: Entombment of Christ Date: 1525 - 1528 A.D. Period: Mannerism Location: Saint Felicita Church in Florence Patron: Capponi family Materials: Oil on wood Function and Content: This work is part of a small burial chapel. Christ is being lifted down into HIs tomb. It is a response to the Protestant Reformation and the principles of the Renaissance. In addition, the Medici family had just abolished the republic of Florence Form: no illusion of space, no perspective,, no sense of weight, no accurate anatomy, circular composition, elongated figures, over-exaggeration of motions | |
| Artist: Lucas Cranach the Elder Title of Work: Allegory of Law and Grace Date: c. 1530 A.D. Period: High Renaissance Patron: Martin Luther Technique: Woodcut and letterpress Function and Content: The Law and the Grace was produced in support of the Lutheran Reformation, explaining Luther's ideas that Heaven can only be obtained through faith and not through good deeds. On the right gospel side, St. John the Baptist leads a man towards Christ's tomb. On the left law side, Moses delivers the Ten Commandments, and a man who decided to live solely by the law is chased into Hell. There is a dying tree, and a living tree, As a whole, the artwork demonstrates the idea that God judges as well as shows mercy. Cranach still followed Christian traditions by including several biblical narratives in one image. | |
| Artist: Titian Title of Work: Venus of Urbino Date: 1538 A.D. Period: High Renaissance Materials: Oil on canvas Technique: Glazing (applying thin layers of oil paint on top of each other) Function and Content: A duke comissioned this portrait as a gift for his wife as an example of the motherly figure she should be. During this time, Venice was able to engage in the arts because of the wealth they received from the trading industry. The female nude becomes a genre Form: softness, chiaroscuro, diagonal curve, direct gaze, incorrect anatomy, deep rich colors, play of shadow and light | |
| Artist: Giacomo da Vignola, plan; Giacomo della Porta, facade; Giovanni Battista Gaulli, ceiling fresco Title of Work: Il Gesù, including Triumph of the Name of Jesus ceiling fresco Date: 1500's Period: Late Renaissance Location: Rome, Italy Patron: Cardinal Materials: Brick, marble, fresco, jasper, and stucco Technique: spolia Function and Content: It functions as the mother church of the Jesuit Order and illustrate the beliefs of the Jesuits. It was also a response to the Reformation. While it is constructed according to a cruciform plan, there is only a single, large aisle in the nave and a small transept. The dark interior illustrates the Baroque contemporary influences. The ceiling fresco dramatically propagates the Faith, as the figures and clouds seem to spill out of the ceiling and onto the architecture. Form: centrality and simplicity, fluted Corinthian columns/pilasters, depending on natural light, dome, focus on altar | |
| Artist: Pieter Bruegel the Elder Title of Work: Hunters in the Snow Date: 1565 A.D. Period: Late Renaissance Materials: Oil on wood Patron: wealthy merchant Function and Content: Bruegel was comissioned to create six panel paintings depicting the labors of the months. Hunters have come back with their dogs from hunting with a very meager catch. Children play and chase each other on the ice, while some women carry firewood. Bruegel was fascinated with the Alps and the depiction of landscapes. He strives to accurately represent the struggles of peasants during the cold winter. Form: aerial perspective, unification of limited color palette, contrasting colors placed side by side | |
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Artist: Mimar Sinan Title of Work: Mosque of Selim II Date: 1568 - 1575 A.D. Period: Islam Location: Edirne, Turkey Patron: Selim II Materials: Brick and stone Function and Content: It was constructed to impress European visitors, who would have first arrived to the empire through this city. Edirne was the second greatest city of the empire, after Istanbul. The prayer hall is square and facaded by a porticoed courtyard. Eyes are drawn upwards towards the dome, which is supported by squinches and piers. The geometric designs on the floor reflect the connection between the earthly and spiritual realms. The muzzin's platform disrupts the area beneath the dome. Unlike Byzantine churches, the exterior of the mosque was important to the overall composition. At that time, the Ottoman empire had just been defeated at the Battle of Lepanto, so the architect wanted to reaffirm the triumph of Islam. Form: elegant, stacked domes, two madrasas, undulating patterns of arches, muqarnas, mihrab towards Mecca |
| Artist: Caravaggio Title of Work: Calling of St. Matthew Date: c. 1597 - 1601 A.D. Period: Baroque Location: San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome, Italy Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: St. Matthew, who is sitting with his fellow tax collectors, is called to become one of Christ's apostles. The figures are sitting in a dark back room, with swords and counting money. It takes spiritual elements and places them in an earthly setting. This painting was comissioned for a chapel to encourage people to join the Church. The figures are dressed in contemporary clothing, and inhabit a commonplace setting, making the narrative more relatable to the people of Caravaggio's time. Form: realism, naturalism, diagonal lines created by pointing of fingers | |
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Artist: Peter Paul Rubens Title of Work: Henri IV Receives the Portrait of Marie de’ Medici, from the Marie de’ Medici Cycle Date: 1621 - 1625 A.D. Period: Baroque Location: France Patron: Marie de Medici Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Rubens was comissioned to paint twenty-four works celebrating the life of Marie de Medici. However, because her life had not been very interesting, he often included mythological elements. Cupid holds up a portrait of Marie to Henri IV. A personification of France stands behind Henri IV, which demonstrates that there were political motives for the marriage. Jove and Juno watch the couple from above. Marie de Medici was also trying to reestablish her reputation after being exiled from court. She wanted to make her authority and marriage seem divinely sanctioned by the gods. Form: presence of ancient mythological figures, atmospheric perspective, diagonal lines, dramatic human anatomy |
| Artist: Rembrandt van Rijn Title of Work: Self-Portrait with Saskia Date: 1636 A.D. Period: Baroque Technique: Etching Function and Content: Rembrandt depicts himself and his wife as Dutch gentry.. This may also serve as a marriage portrait, but Rembrandt is holding a pen in his hand. As viewers, we almost appear to have interrupted this private moment. Saskia's lines are much less thicker than Rembrandt's, as the artist depicted her first so that it would appear as if there were depth to his work. | |
| Artist: Borromini Title of Work: San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane Date: 1638-1646 A.D. Period: Baroque Location: Rome, Italy Patron: Trinitarian Order Materials: Stone and stucco Function and Content: The walls inside of the church undulate and create an unexpected rhythm. Engaged Corinthian columns that emphasize stability alternate with niches. Within the oval geometric dome, there is a dove, a symbol of the Holy Spirit. This church was made out of very inexpensive materials because the Trinitarian Order had little money. The plan of the Church resembles a mandorla, and its complex geometric design gives viewers a sense of the divine. Form: curving rectangular panels, entablature, coffers with rosettes | |
| Artist: Bernini Title of Work: Ecstasy of St. Teresa Date: c. 1647 - 1652 A.D. Period: Baroque Location: Chapel of church in Rome, Italy Materials: Marble, stucco, and gilt bronze Function and Content: Bernini tried to involve the viewer in St. Teresa's ecstasy in order to instill a sense of piety. He translates the physical and spiritual pain St. Teresa was feeling during one of her visions into stone. As Bernini had a background in theater, he included statues of the patrons in side theater boxes, and a spotlight on St. Teresa to increase dramatism. The "rays of sun" in the background represent God. Form: heavy drapery, diagonal line created by gazes, humanism | |
| Artist: Velasquez Title of Work: Las Meninas Date: 1656 A.D. Period: Baroque Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: During this time, the Spanish empire was in decline, because they had just lost the Thirty Years' War. Velasquez depicted the royal family in a very elegant manner in order to distract the audience from their moralistic flaws. The artist looks out towards the viewer, painting on a canvas which is hidden to the viewer. The king and queen of Spain are reflected in the back mirror. A princess is attended to by servants and her attendants. Velasquez combines a genre scene with a royal portrait. Form: naturalism, informality, idealization, perspective, chiaroscuro | |
| Artist: Vermeer Title of Work: Woman Holding a Balance Date: c. 1664 A.D. Period: Baroque Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: The woman is part of the upper merchant class in Holland. Her clothes, the painting in the background, and her valuables demonstrate her societal level The painting in the background depicts the Last Judgment. The work as a whole may serve as a reminder of all the changes during the century: the woman waits for the balance to come to rest, and golden light filters through the room. Form: quiet domestic scene, vanishing point, color, chiaroscuro | |
| Artist: Le Vau and Hardouin-Mansart Title of Work: The Palace at Versailles Date: 1669 A.D. Period: Baroque Location: Versailles, France Patron: King Louis XIV Materials: Masonry, stone, wood, iron, and gold leaf (architecture); marble and bronze (sculpture); gardens Function and Content: The entire palace was meant to recognize King Louis XIV's divine right to rule, as he himself considered himself to be the Sun King and the state. He is placed besides images of Greek gods to relate himself to their power. The bedchambers contain paintings to remind visitors of the tranquility the French government was supposed to bring. The Hall of Mirrors contains mirrors which catch the sun's rays inside the palace. The classical modeling of the exterior connects the king's empire to Ancient Greece and Rome. The gardens and town were built on an east-west axis to create a symbolic parallel between the king and the Sun. Form: symmetrical, repetitive exterior, wealthy, lavish interior | |
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Artist: Viceroyalty of New Spain Title of Work: Frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza Date: c. 1541 - 1542 A.D. Period: Colonial Americas Location: Mexico Patron: Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza Materials: Ink and color on paper Function and Content: The codex contained information regarding the Aztec empire and was intended to reach the Spanish king. The cover relates the myth of the founding of Tenochtitlan at Lake Texcoco. The codex also demonstrates the Aztecs' military strength by depicting two soldiers towering over two defeated men, and the ten men who led the Aztecs to the lake. Form: diagonal lines, geometric |
| Artist: Master of Calamarca (La Paz School) Title of Work: Angel with Arquebus, Asiel Timor Dei Date: 1600's A.D. Location: Peru Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: These representations of angels combined divine, aristocratic, and military aspects throughout Peru. The angel is dressed in the contemporary Peruvian fashion. The harquebus gun demonstrates that angels were often thought of as soldiers of the Church. Such images were used to propagate the spread of the Catholic Faith in South America. | |
| Artist: Circle of the Gonzalez family Title of Work: Screen with the Siege of Belgrade and hunting scene Date: c. 1697 - 1701 A.D. Period: Colonial Americas Location: Mexico Materials: Tempera and resin on wood, shell inlay Patron: Viceroy, count of Moctezuma Function and Content: This is a biombo inspired by the lacquer and landscape elements of a Japanese folding screen. The biombo depicts a Battle of Belgrade scene between the Habsburgs and the Turks. Because this side of the biombo would have been intended for the sight of the viceroy and his guest, it is an expression of his political power. The opposite side of the biombo depicts a landscape hunting scene which would have been viewed by women. Form: delicate, thin painting, shell allows parts of the biombo to become illuminated | |
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Artist: Gonzalez Title of Work: The Virgin of Guadalupe (Virgen de Guadalupe) Date: c. 1698 A.D. Period: Colonial Americas Location: Basilica of Guadalupe, Mexico City Materials: Oil on canvas on wood, inlaid with mother-of-pearl Function and Content: Gonzalez' enconchado painting was based on the original tilma image. The creoles used the symbol of the eagle sitting on a cactus to connect the Virgin Mary to Mexico City. Because the Virgin is dark-complexioned, she may have been used by the locals to represent an indigenous Madonna. Form: three-quarter view, hands clasped, bathed in light |
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Artist: Rachel Ruysch Title of Work: Fruit and Insects Date: 1711 A.D. Period: Baroque Location: Netherlands Materials: Oil on wood Function and Content: The selection of grapes and wheat may have been a reference to the Sacrament of the Most Holy Eucharist. Ruysch wanted to remind viewers of the Catholic Faith through her depictions of scientific studies of lush fruits and vegetables. It would have been showcased in a merchant's house. Form: still-life, harmony of colors, attention to detail |
| Artist: Attributed to Juan Rodríguez Juárez Title of Work: Spaniard and Indian Produce a Mestizo Date: c. 1715 A.D. Period: Colonial Americas Location: Mexico Patron: Viceroys Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Casta paintings typically include a mother, a father, and one child, in reference to the Holy Family. They convey the perception that those who are most "European-blooded" are closest to the top of social hierarchy. Therefore, casta paintings with such families are often depicted more harmoniously. | |
| Artist: Hogarth Title of Work: The Tête à Tête, from Marriage à la Mode Date: c. 1743 A.D. Period: Rococo Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: During this period, merchants were becoming wealthier and were more eager to purchase art. Hogarth made a set of six paintings as a model for prints, which were much less expensive than paintings. In this cycle, Hogarth grapples with the question of whether marriage should be made for money or love. In the Tete-a-Tete, the husband and wife seem to have come home from immoral activities. The distressed accountant and the pictures of saints remind us of their vices. Form: classical statues and paintings, realistic figures | |
| Artist: Cabrera Title of Work: Portrait of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz Date: c. 1750 A.D. Period: Colonial Americas Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Cabrera emphasizes the intellectual curiosity of Sor Juana, a Hieronymite nun. She is reading a text of St. Jerome and wearing a nun's badge, which depicts the Annunciation. The books and writing utensils reflect her love of theology, mathematics, and philosophy. | |
| Artist: Wright of Derby Title of Work: A Philosopher Giving a Lecture on the Orrery Date: c. 1763 - 1765 A.D. Period: Enlightenment Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Wright of Derby's painting emphasizes the ideals of the Age of Enlightenment. While it appears to be an informal, non-idealized family portrait, the use of deep chiaroscuro adds an element of spirituality to the pursuit of scientific knowledge. The lamp of the orrery gives the painting its dramatic effect. In general, the painting emphasizes that science should be made available to all kinds of people. Wright of Derby was probably interested in scientific clubs of his time, and may have attended lectures in astronomy. | |
| Artist: Fragonard Title of Work: The Swing Date: 1767 A.D. Period: Rococo Patron: member of French royal court Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: A bishop (the older man) pushes a young woman as her lover gazes up at her. A statue of Cupid in the left reminds us of the couple's immorality and indulgence in this aristocratic garden. It was intended to be displayed in a private home. Form: beauty, rapid brushwork, energy, movement, diagonal lines | |
| Artist: Jefferson Title of Work: Monticello Date: 1768 - 1809 A.D. Period: Neoclassicism Location: Virginia Materials: Brick, glass, stone, and wood Function and Content: Jefferson believed art was a powerful tool and was an amateur neoclassical architect himself. He chose to reject the Baroque style and the common practice of constructing one's mansion next to a river. He bought brick locally from Virginia instead of importing it from England. Jefferson's travels allowed him to be heavily influenced by French and Roman architecture, especially the Pantheon. By introducing classical architecture in the United States, Jefferson wanted to connect his new country to the ideals of the Greeks and Romans: democracy and civic responsibility. Form: Doric columns, Doric entablature, extended portico, triangular pediment, octagonal dome, bilateral symmetry, Palladian style | |
| Artist: David Title of Work: The Oath of the Horatii Date: 1784 A.D.. Period: Neoclassicism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: This painting shocked audiences because it diverged from the careless Rococo style, which appealed to the aristocracy. Enlightenment thinkers had become influential, and David wanted to create a painting that was both beautiful and moralistic. The curvilinear, sagging forms of the women emphasize the idea that women were not true citizens of the state. On the other hand, the men exhibit muscularity and unity in the uplifting of their arms. The brothers' willingness to die for their country parallels the desire of the French revolutionaries to sacrifice themselves for the good of France. Form: Roman arches, simplified Tuscan columns, angular forms, vanishing point at father's wrist, simplicity, austerity | |
| Artist: Houdon Title of Work: George Washington Date: 1788 - 1792 A.D. Period: Neoclassicism Patron: Governor of Virginia Materials: Sculpted marble Function and Content: The governor of Virginia asked Thomas Jefferson to select a sculptor to celebrate Washington's victories in the American Revolution. In order to create this sculpture, Houdon travelled from France to meet Washington in person. He captures the general's role as a soldier and as a father in a private domestic life. His left hand rests on a fasces, a symbol of power and unity. The plow and the sword represent Washington's resignation of power, comparing him to Cincinnatus. Form: contrapposto | |
| Artist: Vigée Le Brun Title of Work: Self-Portrait Date: 1790 A.D. Period: Rococo Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Vigée Le Brun was the official court painter of Marie Antoinette. She created this artwork in Rome after she fled from the French Revolution. In this painting, she cradles a palette and set of brushes as she looks out towards the viewer. She was influenced by the trend that figures should be represented in more natural positions. Form: flowing, careless movement, alertness in face | |
| Artist: Ingres Title of Work: La Grande Odalisque Date: 1814 A.D. Period: Romanticism Patron: sister of Napoleon Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Ingres was a student of David, but he turned his teacher's Neoclassical style to Romanticism. He covered up the eroticism of the harem by linking it to the exotic Near East or North Africa. The French people assumed that the people in this geographical area were quite barbarous. Form: inaccurate anatomy, distance between woman and audience, texture of peacock fan and velvet cushion, languidity | |
| Artist: Delacroix Title of Work: Liberty Leading the People Date: 1830 A.D. Period: Romanticism Patron: Purchased by Louis Phillipe Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: This work depicts the revolution which placed Louis Philippe on the throne in favor of Charles X. The cathedral of Notre Dame represents the conservative monarchy, and the tricolor flag represents the revolutionaries. Liberty is the personification of the courageous individuals who leaped over the barricades to fight for their freedom. Delacroix unites the lower and middle classes by depicting their vestments. Form: classical profile, unidealized violence, diagonals, smoky background, pyramidal shape, loose brushwork, vivid colors | |
| Artist: Cole (Hudson River School) Title of Work: The Oxbow (View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm) Date: 1836 A.D. Period: Romanticism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Out of all genres of artwork, landscape paintings were some of the lowest-ranked. However, Cole gives the genre its importance by the impressive size of the Oxbow. The left and right sides of the painting demonstrate the change from the sublime to the pastoral, which Americans will bring to the untamed wilderness. It represents the concept of manifest destiny.. On the hill, there are words in Hebrew, which, if read from above, spell "almighty". Cole wanted to entertain the new rising merchant class with his Christian works. Form: luscious green, self-portrait | |
| Artist: Daguerre Title of Work: Still Life in Studio Date: 1837 A.D. Materials: Daguerreotype Function and Content: The three-dimensional forms of the objects reflect classical high-relief statuary. Daguerre arranged the objects to offer a symbolic meaning and to show their textures. Form: light and shadow | |
| Artist: Joseph Mallord WIlliam Turner Title of Work: Slave Ship (Slavers Throwing Overboard the Dead and Dying, Typhoon Coming On) Date: 1840 A.D. Period: Romanticism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: In the midst of a typhoon, a crew is seen throwing the slaves overboard to claim their insurance. By communicating this story, Turner mixes the beauty of nature and the violence of human actions. This work speaks to the growing abolitionist movement in America. He was inspired by an actual event which occurred in the Atlantic a few decades before. Form: blending of colors, vivid blue and red sunset, harsh brushstrokes | |
| Artist: Barry and Pugin Title of Work: Palace of Westminster (Houses of Parliament) Date: 1840 - 1870 A.D. Period: Romanticism Location: London, England Materials: Limestone masonry and glass Function and Content: Pugin was known for his belief in the place of Gothic architecture within England. People felt unsettled by the ugliness of the Industrial Revolution, and wanted to bring back the grandeur of the Late Medieval Period. They wanted to remember the era in which faith was placed before fortune. In this building, the House of Commons and the House of Lords reunite in the parliamentary system. Form: ventilation system, concrete bed foundation, perpendicular style, windows divided by tracery work, rhythm of facade statues, stained glass, pointed arches, rib vaulting, stone reliefs and statuary, tympana filled with religious imagery | |
| Artist: Courbet Title of Work: The Stone Breakers Date: 1849 A.D. Period: Realism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Courbet depicts peasants performing laborious tasks. There is man who seems to old to work and a boy who seems to young to work. In the creation of the painting, Courbet paid equal attention to the figures and rocky setting. He painted it in response to a recent labor unrest. Form: genre painting, nonidealized, no sense of unification, rough brushwork, large canvas | |
| Artist: Daumier Title of Work: Nadar Raising Photography to the Height of Art Date: 1862 A.D. Period: Realism Materials: Lithograph Technique: printing from stone/smooth metal plate Function and Content: Daumier lampoons the attempt of the bizarre Nadar to use an aerial balloon for his explorations in photography, which was quickly becoming recognized as a new medium of art. It was a response to a court declaration of 1862, stating that photographs were the intellectual property of the photographer. Form: Paris city setting | |
| Artist: Goya Title of Work: Y no hai remedio (And There’s Nothing to Be Done), from Los Desastres de la Guerra (The Disasters of War), plate 15 Date: 1810 - 1823 A.D. Period: Romanticism Materials: Etching, drypoint, burin, and burnishing Function and Content: Person is Alter Christ, French occupation of Spain by Bonaparte Form: nuanced shades of light and dark, contorted body, muzzles draw gaze to person | |
| Artist: Edouard Manet Title of Work: Olympia Date: 1863 A.D. Period: Impressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: This salon painting depicts a woman from an apartment in Paris. She looks straight out of the viewer as if the audience had just entered her room. Manet was influenced by Titian's Venus of Urbino, but was suggesting that Greco-Roman classicism no longer had a place in the modern world. Form: non-idealized, angularity of body, strong light and dark contrasts create a flattening effect, no depth or perspective, loose, unblended brushstrokes | |
| Artist: Claude Monet Title of Work: The Saint-Lazare Station Date: 1877 A.D. Period: Impressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Monet depicts a very modern subject: steam-powered trains in a station. Not only does he emphasize how transportation bring together people of different social classes and races, he experiments with color to record the effects of light, smoke, and steam. Natural sunlight filters through the windows and skylights of the train stations, glorifying science, technology, and Paris' urban landscape. Monet was inspired by photography and actually went to visit the trains at the station. During Monet's time, Parisian streets and neighborhoods were being enlarged by projects led by Baron Haussmann. Form: smoke dissolves forms of trains and shed, quick, painterly brushstrokes, wide range of colors | |
| Artist: Muybridge Title of Work: The Horse in Motion Date: 1878 A.D. Period: Realism Materials: Albumen calotype print Technique: sequential photography Function and Content: This series of photographs was created to settle the question with the governor of California of whether or not a horse ever takes all four legs off during a gallop. Each still catches the horse with its jockey in a different stride in profile view. It elevates photography and establishes its potential. | |
| Artist: Jose Maria Velasco Title of Work: The Valley of Mexico from the Hillside of Santa Isabel (El Valle de México desde el Cerro de Santa Isabel) Date: 1882 A.D. Period: Romanticism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: This work is a panoramic view of the Valley of Mexico. Velasco uses zigzag diagonal lines formed by the contours of the mountains to draw our eyes towards Mexico City itself. He combined his interest for the scientific depiction of nature with his love for this history of nature. The development of the valley is juxtaposed with the old volcanoes in the distance, which formed an important part of Mexican mythology. Form: thick brushstrokes, luscious colors | |
| Artist: Auguste Rodin Title of Work: The Burghers of Calais Date: 1884 - 1895 A.D. Period: Realism and Impressionism Patron: city of Calais Materials: Bronze Function and Content: The city of Calais asked Rodin to create this piece to commemorate Eustache de Saint-Pierre.. The portrait sculptures of six men stand apart, showing their tattered clothes and wearied expressions. King Edward III said he would save the citizens of Calais if these men offered to give up their lives. Rodin depicts the moment when the threat of death is very real for them. They are of equal size and have no clear leader. He eliminates the pedestal to allow his audience to connect more easily with the figures, which can be admired from multiple perspectives. Form: pathos, crushing weight of drapery, undulations on surface of men, immense size, light-capturing bronze | |
| Artist: Vincent van Gogh Title of Work: The Starry Night Date: 1889 A.D. Period: Post-Impressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Van Gogh painted the Starry Night during his convalescence at a psychiatric instiution. He wanted to experiment with the creation of a "night effect", to express his inner turmoil. The cypress tree is a traditional symbol of death and eternal life. He was influenced by the Japanese ukiyo-e he purchased. Form: stylized lines which reflect woodcuts, thick impasto, vibrant, exaggerated colors, simplified forms | |
| Artist: Mary Cassatt Title of Work: The Coiffure Date: 1890-1891 A.D. Period: Impressionism Materials: Drypoint and aquatint Technique: copper plate Function and Content: Due to the woman's position, the viewer can focus more on the compositional elements of the work. Cassatt painted this piece in the style of Japanese ukiyo-e, and included Asian-like decorative patterns. She believed prints would allow the poor to be able to access and appreciate art more easily. At this time, contact between the West and the East was increasing, and Europeans were fascinated by Japan. Form: hazy shading, small range of colors, soft tones, flat canvas | |
| Artist: Edvard Munch Title of Work: The Scream Date: 1893 A.D. Period: Symbolism Materials: Tempera and pastel on cardboard Function and Content: The curving form of the figure screaming mimics the swirling landscape and sky, while the two figures in the distance follow the geometry of the bridge. Munch is attempting to describe his tumultuous relationships with life, death, and dread. Form: stylized, elongated form, minimalistic, non-naturalistic, synesthesia | |
| Artist: Paul Gauguin Title of Work: Where do we come from? What are we? Where are we going? Date: 1897 - 1898 A.D. Period: Post-Impressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Gauguin painted in this work in Polynesia, recalling his time in the island of Tahiti. The painting is full of symbolic imagery, and must be read from right to left. It is designed to imitate Renaissance frescoes and Byzantine icons. Form: stylized, abstraction, colors | |
| Artist: Louis Sullivan Title of Work: Carson, Pirie, Scott, and Company Building Date: 1899 - 1903 A.D. Period: Symbolism Location: Chicago Materials: Iron, steel, glass, and terracotta Function and Content: Sullivan believed that it was important for the form of a building to follow its function. Therefore, he emphasizes not the verticality of the building, but the ground department store in order to draw viewers in. He also incorporated Art Nouveau decorations, which included cast-iron bars (industrial materials) reflecting organic, floral shapes. Form: white facade, bronze ground floor, large ground floor windows, rounded bay, tripartite plan, horizontality | |
| Artist: Paul Cezanne Title of Work: Mont Sainte-Victoire Date: 1902 - 1904 A.D. Period: Post-Impressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Cezanne painted the mountain of his homeland, Mont Sainte-Victoire. He studied the forms of nature in an analytical fashion, and sought to explore the coexistence of multiple viewpoints within a single scene. Cezanne was influenced by the Japanese ukiyo-e he purchased. Form: two-dimensionality of canvas, impasto, landscape painting, no single atmospheric perspective, "bird's eye" perspective", color divided up into three parts, diagonal lines, color patches to create depth, intersecting planes | |
| Artist: Picasso Title of Work: Les Demoiselles d'Avignon Date: 1907 A.D. Period: Cubism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: The young ladies are living in a house in a street in Barcelona called Avignon. They engage the viewer directly, as in Manet's Olympia. Picasso modeled their faces after African masks and archaic Iberian figures. He did not try to hide the two-dimensionality of the canvas. Form: highlighting, space fractured into planes to give illusion of three dimensions | |
| Artist: Alfred Stieglitz Title of Work: The Steerage Date: 1907 A.D. Materials: Photogravure Function and Content: This photograph has been interpreted as representing the struggles of immigrants. It depicts the steerage (low-class seating) and an observation deck. The image generates a current of movement through the representation of multiple races and classes of people. Stieglitz wanted to emphasize the rawness of modern life and was a proponent of the idea that photography was a fine art. Form: geometric shapes, diagonal line, round oval hat | |
| Artist: Gustav Klimt Title of Work: The Kiss Date: 1907 - 1908 A.D. Period: Symbolism Materials: Oil and gold leaf on canvas Function and Content: Klimt visited Ravenna and was influenced by the flatness and the lack of perspective on the Byzantine icons he saw there. The contrast between the rectangular and curvilinear forms and light reflecting off the gold creates a feeling of transcendence and spirituality. Klimt delivers an aesthetic calm through the warmth of the embrace and the repeating geometric forms. The artist was a member of the Vienna Secession. | |
| Artist: Constantin Brancusi Title of Work: The Kiss Date: 1907 - 1908 A.D. Period: Cubism Materials: Stone Function and Content: Brancusi brings ancient art ideas to Paris from his native Romania. He worked in Rodin's studio, but rejected the ideas of art academies. He honors the material nature of the block and the primitive truth of the need of man and woman to come together. Form: cubic qualities, archaic tradition, texture | |
| Artist: Braque Title of Work: The Portuguese Date: 1911 A.D. Period: Cubism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Braque was inspired by Cezanne and Picasso to break up elements into multiple planes or fragments, so that the viewer could understand them from multiple angles. Here, he depicts a man playing a guitar at a dock. Form: almost monochrome | |
| Artist: Matisse Title of Work: The Goldfish Date: 1912 A.D. Period: Fauvinism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: The bold orange of the goldfish stands out against the subtler colors. Matisse wishes the viewer to contemplate upon divine thoughts as they stare at the goldfish. His travels to Morocco led him to associate goldfish with peace and tranquility. He also tries to evoke thoughts of paradise through the inclusion of several natural elements. All of the props are actually features of his own studio. However, he constructed pictorial space in a skewed manner. Fauvists stressed painterly surfaces with broad, flat areas of violently contrasting colors (often complementary). Form: goldfish viewed from multiple angles, bold brushstrokes | |
| Artist: Kandinsky Title of Work: Improvisation 28 (second version) Date: 1912 A.D. Period: German Expressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Kandinsky attempts to connect painting with music through the title "Improvisation". He was interested in the atonal music of Arnold Schoenberg. Many scholars have associated the elements in Kandinsky's work as a desire for a great war or flood to wash away the evils of the world. The artist was inspired by Fauvism and was a crucial part of the "Blue Rider" movement. Form: bright color, black crisscrossing diagonals, abstracted from nature | |
| Artist: Ernst Ludwig Kirchner Title of Work: Self-Portrait as a Soldier Date: 1915 A.D. Period: German Expressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Kirchner founded the Die Brucke (The Bridge) artists, who were interested in German philosophy and primitive art. The nude model in this painting is a rough sketch with long, tapered limbs, "natural" hallmarks of his group's style. Kirchner explores his personal fears as an artist. He was clearly influenced by the Fauves' use of color. Form: unidealized, dark, cold colors | |
| Artist: Kathe Kollwitz Title of Work: Memorial Sheet of Karl Liebknecht Date: 1919 - 1920 A.D. Period: German Expressionism Materials: Woodcut printing Function and Content: After World War I, Kollwitz turned to printmaking to share her ideas about the suffering lower classes with a wider audience. She believed woodcut prints, however, could better attest to the harshness of war. Although she did not support the Community party, Kollwitz agreed to create a lamentation to memorialize the leader. She focuses on the tribulations of the peasants he left behind. She was influenced by Christian representations, especially those found in Giotto's Lamentation. Form: three registers, monochromatic palette, grieving faces, crowding figures, rhythm | |
| Artist: Le Corbusier Title of Work: Villa Savoye Date: 1929 A.D. Period: Modernism Location: Poissy-sur-Seine, France Materials: Steel and reinforced concrete Function and Content: The energy and dynamism of the interior spaces contrasts with the sharp geometric qualities of the exterior. This house was designed to connect both inside and outside spaces. His designs were heavily inspired by the advent of the automobile Form: pilotis (columns), ribbon windows, roof terrace, open interior plan, free facade | |
| Artist: Piet Mondrian Title of Work: Composition with Red, Blue, and Yellow Date: 1930 A.D. Period: De Stijl (The Style) Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Mondrian was inspired by Cubism, but wanted to take it a step further towards abstraction. He believed the evolution of abstraction was a sign of the progress of human civilization. He used different values and color to create a harmonious composition of contrasts. He wanted to apply order to the world after World War I. Form: neoplasticism, rectilinear forms, primary colors (red, blue, and yellow), primary values (black, white, and gray), vertical and horizontal lines | |
| Artist: Varvara Stepanova Title of Work: Illustration from The Results of the First Five-Year Plan Date: 1932 A.D. Period: Soviet-Avant Garde Patron: Soviet Union government officials Materials: Photographs, newspaper clippings Technique: Photomontage Function and Content: Stepanova chose to create a photomontage to propagate Stalin's plan because it provided foreign audiences with visual evidence of the success of his regime. The electrical transmission tower reminds the viewer of Stalin's industrialization efforts. The size and expression of his face emphasizes his importance.. The trumpets and the cheering people spread the news of the benefits of his plan. Form: strong contrast between colors of various elements | |
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Artist: Meret Oppenheim Title of Work: Object (Le Déjeuner en fourrure) Date: 1936 A.D. Period: Surrealism Materials: Fur-covered cup, saucer, and spoon Function and Content: Oppenheim asks us to understand what it would feel like to take the cup into our hands and feel the fur on top of the china. |
| Artist: Frank Lloyd Wright Title of Work: Fallingwater Date: 1936 - 1939 A.D. Period: Modernism Location: Pennsylvania Patron: Kaufmann family Materials: reinforced concrete, sandstone, steel, and glass Function and Content: Wright strived to incorporate nature within his architecture. the "walls" that face the falls are entirely made of glass. A trellis beam bends around a pre-existing tree. The use of cantilevered, reinforced concrete balconies creates a dynamic spatial interplay between the interior of the house and its natural surroundings. Form: strong horizontal lines, earth tones, organic relationship with setting, central hearth | |
| Artist: Frida Kahlo Title of Work: The Two Fridas Date: 1939 A.D. Period: Modernism Materials: oil on canvas Function and Content: Form: traditional Mexican dress, human anatomy, stormy gray sky, duality | |
| Artist: Jacob Lawrence Title of Work: The Migration of the Negro, Panel No. 49 Date: 1940 - 1941 A.D. Period: Harlem Renaissance Materials: casein tempera on hardboard Function and Content: Lawrence documents the migration of African-American's from the south to the north in the beginning of the 20th century. The gold barrier in this image expresses physical division and racism. Form: geometric shapes, sharp, vibrant colors, flattened gray background, silhouetted figures, different points of view, unity through repeated forms, influence of Cubism | |
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Jungle (binary/octet-stream)
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Artist: Wilfredo Lam Title of Work: The Jungle Date: 1943 A.D. Period: Surrealism Materials: Gouache on paper mounted on canvas Function and Content: This composition consists of various elongated limbs, figures, and sugarcane. Although American tourists enjoyed the beaches of Cuba, American companies exploited Cuba's supply of sugarcane. Lam was inspired by Santeria, an Afro-Cuban religion. He wanted to create an Afro-Cuban identity against the background of slavery. Form: juxtaposition of irrational images, enlarged hands and feet |
| Artist: Diego Rivera Title of Work: Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in the Alameda Park Date: 1947 - 1948 A.D. Period: Modernism Materials: Fresco Function and Content: While a nightmarish skirmish occurs in the far right side, the central surreal quartet of Rivera, Kahlo, a skeleton (La Catrina, a critique of the elite class), and Posada gaze out to the viewer. If the painting is read from left the right, the famous figures of Mexican history tell the story of Mexico up to the time of Porfirio Diaz. Rivera does not "edit out" the histories of the indigenous populations. He combines disparate images, after the trend of the Surrealists. | |
| Artist: Marcel Duchamp Title of Work: Fountain (second version) Date: 1950 A.D. Period: Dadaism Materials: Readymade glazed sanitary China with black paint | |
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Woman (binary/octet-stream)
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Artist: Willem de Kooning Title of Work: Woman, I Date: 1950 - 1952 A.D. Period: Gestural Abstract Expressionism Materials: Oil on canvas Function and Content: Kooning followed in Pollock's footsteps and worked in the gestural abstractionist style. His painting embodies a satirical view of the traditional idealized portraits of women. HIs painting is about the actual process of making art and the representation of women. Form: gestural brushstrokes and abstraction, agitated, slashing lines, textured paint, split complementary color scheme |
| Artist: Ludwig Mies van der Rohe and Phillip Johnson Title of Work: Seagram Building Date: 1954 - 1958 A.D. Period: Post-Modernism Location: New York City, U.S. Patron: large corporation Materials: Steel frame with glass curtain wall and bronze Function and Content: The building uses bronze and travertine, referencing classical antiquity. In addition, the ground floor pillars look like fluted columns. The vertical mullions give the surface of the skyscraper texture and highlights. The elevator banks give solidity to the interior of the skyscraper. The building does not occupy its entire lot. Form: symmetrical, frontal columns, fountains | |
| Artist: Andy Warhol Title of Work: Marilyn Diptych Date: 1962 A.D. Period: Pop art Materials: Oil, acrylic, and silkscreen enamel on canvas Function and Content: By calling this piece a "diptych", Warhol suggests he wishes the viewer to idolize Marilyn Monroe as a religious figure. Diptychs were common Christian paintings. Through repetition and the use of the silkscreen technique, Warhol creates physical and emotional flatness, so that we are unable to connect to the actress' emotions. He references her death by making the faces on the left side appear to be embalmed, and the faces on the right side appear to be disappearing ghosts. Form: large size, five-by-five grids | |
| Artist: Helen Frankenthaler Title of Work: The Bay Date: 1963 A.D. Period: Post-Painterly Abstraction Materials: Acrylic on canvas Technique: color-field painting - pour dilute colors, canvas soaks in pigments Function and Content: Frankenthaler emphasizes the harmonious relationship of colors and the two-dimensionality of the canvas. She rejects the gestural brushstrokes of Abstract Expressionism. As she worked, she moved the canvas around to allow the colors to flow and soak into the canvas in an analogous color scheme. The painting demonstrates elements of spontaneity and atmosphere. The emphasis is on shapes and the subject matter is non-objective | |
| Artist: Yayoi Kusama Title of Work: Narcissus Garden Date: 1966 Period: Conceptual Art Materials: Installation, mirror balls Function and Content: Because the balls create a reflection of oneself, they encourage us to get closer to them and even take pictures of them to share on the internet. After each repeated installation, Kusama sold the spheres for more dollars. | |
| Artist: Claes Oldenburg Title of Work: Lipstick (Ascending) on Caterpillar Tracks Date: 1969 - 1974 A.D. Period: Conceptual Art Materials: Cor-Ten steel, steel, aluminum, cast-resin, enamel Function and Content: By combining feminine and masculine elements, Oldenburg criticizes the violence of war and American consumerism. Consumerism led civilians to become apathetic towards the war. The artist was engaged in non-violent anti Vietnam War protests. | |
| Artist: Robert Smithson Title of Work: Spiral Jetty Date: 1970 A.D. Period: Conceptual Art Location: Great Salt Lake, Utah Materials: mud, precipitated salt crystals, rock, water coil Function and Content: Smithson wanted to reflect on the tension between environmental and industrial issues of his day. By creating this earthwork sculpture, he allows for opportunities for the water and the land to connect with each other. Spirals are very common shapes in nature. Smithson's work raises questions about whether art should be allowed to change over time, and encourages viewers to interact with art and the environment. He was inspired by indigenous cave paintings and the halophilic organisms which give the salt lake a pinkish hue. | |
| Artist: Robert Venturi, John Rauch, Denise Scott Brown Title of Work: House in New Castle County Date: 1978 - 1983 A.D. Period: Post-Modern Location: Delaware Materials: wood frame and stucco Function and Content: Venturi was influenced by Mannerist and Baroque styles. He rejected the austerity of Modernism and embraced playfulness and the eclectic combination of stylistic elements. The house is surrounded by nature: fields and forests. Both facades of the house are dominated by arched screens. However, the rear facade uses four flattened versions of columns which provide no real structural support. THe interior features flattened ceiling arches and quirky chandeliers. | |
| Artist: Christo and Jeanne-Claude Title of Work: The Gates Date: 1979 - 2005 A.D. Location: New York City (Central Park) Materials: Mixed-media installation Function and Content: The artists intentionally chose the saffron color to represent a warm canopy casting shadows on the ground. The structure is a dynamic, not a static object, which can be enjoyed from multiple viewpoints and forms a rhythm with the motion of pedestrians. Because the exhibition was never intended to be permanent, it gives audiences a desire to experience it in person while it lasts. The artists spent more than two decades securing the necessary permissions to present their work. | |
| Artist: Maya Lin Title of Work: Vietnam Veterans Memorial Date: 1982 A.D. Location: Washington D.C. Materials: Granite Function and Content: The granite reflects the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial, and opens up a world which we cannot see. Her abstraction of real people by simply listing names on a black wall represents the dead soldiers more fully than pictures could. The names become the actual art and encourage audience interaction with the granite. The experience of interacting with this monument can be overwhelming, as visitors must walk down steps below earth level. Lin was inspired heavily by minimalism. | |
| Artist: Jean-Michel Basquiat Title of Work: Horn Players Date: 1983 A.D. Period: Neo-Expressionist Materials: Acrylic and oil paintstick on three canvas panels Location: Manhattan Function and Content: The painting represents two jazz musicians - Charlie "Bird" Parker and Dizzy Gillespie. Basquiat was inspired by Picasso and the representation of African-American culture. He critiques the stereotypical representation of African-Americans. During Basquiat's time, graffiti was becoming more mainstream and accepted by society. Form: repeated, crossed-out words, white swaths of paint, half-length portraits, triptych, graffiti-like, flat | |
| Artist: Song Su-nam Title of Work: Summer Trees Date: 1983 A.D. Period: Oriental Ink Movement Materials: Ink on paper Function and Content: In this painting, Song explored the relationship between tone, the wet paper, and the dripping ink.. Song was reflecting on the world of the literati, respected Chinese ink artists. The summer trees may reference a gathering of good friends. Song was trying to express his Korean identity in his work. Korea had been afflicted by many wars throughout the 20th century, so the summer trees may also present his optimism. Form: monochromatic palette, vertical brushstrokes | |
| Artist: Magdalena Abakanowicz Title of Work: Androgyne III Date: 1985 A.D. Materials: Burlap, resin, wood, nails, and string Function and Content: Abakanowicz suffered through World War II and a Communist government. At the Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw, she was forced to adopt a Social Realist style, but later experimented with textiles. Her figures often allude to the brutality of war. Form: androgynous, dehumanized, emphasis on space, fragmented | |
| Artist: Xu Bing Title of Work: A Book from the Sky Date: 1987 - 1991 A.D. Materials: Mixed-media installation Function and Content: In this installation, the audience is surrounded by texts full of nonreal Chinese characters, handbound in the style of traditional Chinese book art. Bing used the old technique of movable type to print the characters. He was trained to use calligraphy for propaganda purposes throughout Mao Zedong's regime. The books on the floor form sea waves, and the texts hanging from the ceiling form a billowing sky. | |
| Artist: Jeff Koons Title of Work: Pink Panther Date: 1988 A.D. Materials: Glazed porcelain Function and Content: Koons uses the 1960 color scheme and the poses of the figures to discuss the position of the woman in a predominantly masculine world. He also questions taste by setting up a rather kitsch display, ironically appropriating a figure of mass culture. | |
| Artist: Cindy Sherman Title of Work: Untitled #228, from the History Portraits series Date: 1990 A.D. Materials: Photograph Function and Content: Holding a mask to represent the head of Holofernes, Cindy Sherman photographs herself in the role of Biblical hero Judith, in the style of a Renaissance oil painting. She is dressed in cheap red garments and assumes a pose of power. Apart from challenging the way women are viewed in modern society, she acts as a victim while victimizing the audience. | |
| Artist: Faith Ringgold Title of Work: Dancing at the Louvre, from the series The French Collection, Part I; #1 Date: 1991 A.D. Materials: Acrylic on canvas, tie-dyed, pieced fabric border Function and Content: Ringgold encourages viewers to abandon a Western view of the world by drawing from African-American traditions and utilizing cultural appropriation. This "story-quilt" series tells the story of the life of Willa Marie Simone, a young girl who visits France with her friends. The figures have their backs to the paintings, which shows that these Western paintings aren't part of their narrative. Handwritten fabric panels narrate Willa's thoughts and experiences. The work reflects the importance of the quilt from the perspective of women in history, especially Ringgold's family. | |
| Artist: Jaune Quick-to-See Smith Title of Work: Trade (Gifts for Trading Land with White People) Date: 1992 A.D. Materials: Oil and mixed media on canvas Function and Content: Smith designed this work for a "non-celebration" - the 500th anniversary of Columbus' arrival. Trade, which is reminiscent of a triptych altarpiece, recalls how Europeans exchanged inexpensive trinkets for land. The canvas is covered with collages featuring Native American stereotypes and features stripes of gold, red, green, and white. The canoe is stuck in the water, suggesting that the opportunity for fair trade between Native Americans and foreigners is long gone. The clothesline demonstrates how Native American cultural objects have become commodified in the modern world. Smith critiques the American concept of manifest destiny and the bleak sufferings of Native Americans. Form: expressive, gestural brushstrokes | |
| Artist: Emily Kame Kngwarreye Title of Work: Earth's Creation Date: 1994 A.D. Materials: Synthetic polymer paint on canvas Function and Content: Kngwarreye was an Aborigine who lived through the colonization of Central Australia and the embracement of Aboriginal culture. Her works were inspired by her rituals dreams and her body drawings. The piece captures a green season with lush green and blue tones. Form: large size, gestural brushstrokes | |
| Artist: Shirin Neshat and Cynthia Preston Title of Work: Rebellious Silence, from the Women of Allah series Date: 1994 A.D. Materials: Ink on photograph Function and Content: The Women of Allah series questions the female identity in the Middle East and the divide between the Western world and other cultures. After the overthrow of the Shah in Iran by revolutionaries, women were required to always wear a veil in public. Neshat believes this is a symbol of oppression and that women must hold their gaze with that of men. The poem written across the women's face deals with the greatness of martyrdom. Form: black and white images | |
| Artist: Pepon Osorio Title of Work: En la Barberia no se Llora (No Crying Allowed in the Barbershop) Date: 1994 A.D. Materials: Mixed-media installation Function and Content: Osorio was inspired by his experiences in Nuyorican communities, and the difficulties Puerto Ricans face when they migrate to America. Through this installation, Osorio not only critiques the concept of machismo through various "masculine" objects, but also how audiences view kitsch objects. Osorio included several video installations of men standing in dominant and non-dominant poses. | |
| Artist: Michel Tuffery Title of Work: Pisupo Lua Afe (Corned Beef 2000) Date: 1994 A.D. Materials: Mixed media Function and Content: Tuffery used flattened corned beef tins to recreate bulls, and most often aimed his Pacific and environmental works towards children. Pisupo (canned food) is significant because it is often gifted at special island ceremonies. However, it is high in saturated fat and cholesterol. Tuffery is not only critiquing population health, but also the negative issues stemming from the introduction of cattle into the Pacific Islands, and the wasteful plastic society. Tuffery's work also explores the challenges food sovereignty experiences in the Islands. | |
| Artist: Nam June Paik Title of Work: Electronic Superhighway Date: 1995 A.D. Materials: Mixed-media installation (49-channel closed-circuit video installation, neon, steel, and electronic components) Function and Content: Paik first coined the term "electronic superhighway" to describe the influence that media technology would have in the 21st century. He originally studied composition in college, but then moved on to explore video art and the use of the TV as a creative medium. In this work, the neon lights clearly define the state borders, but they also demonstrate how we are now more connected by electronic communication than roads. The TV screens of each state display video clips from that state's particular mythology. A feedback screen in Washington, D.C., invites the viewer to interact with the work of art. Although this work shows the brilliance of media technology, it also explores a negative aspect of "information overload". | |
| Artist: Bill Viola Title of Work: The Crossing Date: 1996 A.D. Materials: Video / sound installation Function and Content: The Crossing is a two-screen installation. At first, two men walk slowly towards the camera. However, one is consumed by fire, and the other is consumed by water. Both leave behind an empty stillness. Viola initially shot part of the film with a high FPS, and then used slow motion to create a calm and contemplative atmosphere. The elemental forces of fire and water symbolize reconciliation and renewal, and the self-annihilation event symbolizes the destruction of the ego, which is necessary for purification. Viola, an artist from New York, often incorporated new technology and the emotions relating to "sacred spaces" in his work. He is often inspired by global religious traditions. | |
| Artist: Frank Gehry (architect) Title of Work: Guggenheim Museum Bilbao Date: 1997 A.D. Location: Spain Materials: Titanium, glass, and limestone Function and Content: Gehry breaks away from the traditional designs for museums, but also incorporates some of Wright's style into his work.. The classical galleries are rectangular rooms, but the boat gallery has space for larger installations. The creation of the Guggenheim Bilbao greatly helped the city's economy. Form: focus on atrium, rippling, undulating elements | |
| Artist: Mariko Mori Title of Work: Pure Land Date: 1998 A.D. Materials: Color photograph on glass Function and Content: The photograph is the contemplative and meditative counterpart of Mori's film Nirvana. The artist immerses the viewer in the futuristic world through the combination of colors and creation of depth. In continuity with earlier Japanese paintings, Buddha was sometimes depicted as surrounded by celestial attendants. In addition, Mori transforms herself into a figure inspired by the Indian goddess of fortune and the Amida Buddha. Form: orange/yellow/pink landscape and female figure, lotus blossom = purity, salt of Dead Sea = purification, spacecraft with arms = Tibetan stupa burial mound, aliens = celestial musician attendants, hand = mudra of blessing, wishing jewel = lotus bud | |
| Artist: Kiki Smith Title of Work: Lying with the Wolf Date: 2001 A.D. Materials: Ink and pencil on paper Function and Content: Smith demonstrates her respect for the natural world and her ideas regarding femininity. In this case, she turns a normally violent story into a gesture of affection. She often included references to Red Riding Hood and St. Genevieve in her work. The drawing blurs the distinction between predator and prey., suggesting that men should not be superior to women. | |
| Artist: Kara Walker Title of Work: Darkytown Rebellion Date: 2001 A.D. Materials: Cut paper and projection on wall Function and Content: Walker challenges how people view the African-American culture. She removed caricatures from a painting titled "Darkytown" and included their silhouettes in this work, questioning whether or not these stereotypes are still relevant in the 21st century. Waves of color wash over the the contorted silhouettes of the figures, which engaged in a rebellion. The silhouettes disguise exact details and heighten the scene's surreality. In addition, the projector on the wall allows the audience's shadow to participate in the scene. Form: minimalist facial silhouettes | |
| Artist: Yinki Shonibare Title of Work: The Swing (after Fragonard) Date: 2001 A.D. Materials: Mixed-media installation Function and Content: The figure is headless, dressed in brightly colored drapery, and surrounded by verdant foliage. Through the extravagance of the three-dimensional recreation of The Swing, Shonibare invites us to consider the economic differences between social classes. The figure is dressed in patterned "African" Dutch wax fabrics - which were originally based on Asian designs. As a result, Shonibare is also considering how we perceive race and ethnicity. Through this work, the artist shows us how a simple act of leisure reflects exploitation that the lower classes and specific races face. | |
| Artist: El Anatsui Title of Work: Old Man's Cloth Date: 2003 A.D. Materials: Aluminum and copper wire Function and Content: The colored pieces of metal are contorted in various ways to catch the light from every angle and produce a shimmering effect. Anatsui chose to create this work out of liquor bottle labels, which symbolized the unfortunate history of trade for slaves and alcohol between Africa and Europe The name "Old Man's Cloth" references the important of textiles in African societies. The golden color also reminds viewers of Anatsui's home country, Ghana, often referred to as the "Gold Coast". | |
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Stadia (binary/octet-stream)
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Artist: Julie Mehretu Title of Work: Stadia II Date: 2004 A.D. Materials: Ink and acrylic on canvas Function and Content: Not only can we visualize a large sporting event in this stadium, we can also envision the celebration of a political victory, a mass riot, or an act of violence. The colorful shapes that litter the top of the canvas, for instance, may present the national flags of various countries. To Mehretu, stadiums represented places of both order and chaos. She was greatly inspired by Russian constructivists, such as Wassily Kandinsky.. The dynamic elements seem to be caught between various surfaces and planes, giving the work depth. |
| Artist: Wangechi Mutu Title of Work: Preying Mantra Date: 2006 A.D. Materials: Mixed media on Mylar Function and Content: Through this work, Mutu, a Kenyan artist, invites viewers to explore common stereotypes about the aesthetics of the African female body and of African culture in general. She mixes natural with unnatural phenomena to symbolize the struggle between the Africans and the Europeans. The serpent and the tree suggest myths of creation. The figure depicted references a praying mantra by the placement of her body, which is camouflaged by the leaves of tree. Form: geometrically patterned Kuba cloth, dappled by sunlight | |
| Artist: Doris Salcedo Title of Work: Shibboleth Date: 2007 - 2008 A.D. Materials: Installation Function and Content: To understand the work, viewers must change their perspective of the negative space created by the crack. Shibboleth is a socio-political work which comments on the experience of immigrants in Europe, racial segregation, and the sufferings of other vulnerable cultures. The act of gashing the floor open is already a sign of rebellion. After the exhibition closed, the crack was sealed up, but Shibboleth left a scar on the floor. Salcedo's art is difficult to classify because it is not exactly sculpture or installation. | |
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Maxxi (binary/octet-stream)
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Artist: Zaha Hadid Title of Work: MAXXI National Museum of XXI Century Arts Date: 2009 A.D. Location: Rome Materials: Glass, steel, and cement Function and Content: The artist draws from Islam, Modernism, and Constructivism, and the use of concrete recalls Roman tradition. Like the Guggenheim Bilbao, it challenges museum traditions. Form: weightlessness (rests on other buildings), single concrete slab, metallic colonnade, black and white color scheme, curvilinear stairs, rectilinear beams and walkways |
| Artist: Ai Weiwei Title of Work: . Kui Hua Zi (Sunflower Seeds) Date: 2010 - 2011 A.D. Materials: Sculpted and painted porcelain Function and Content: Ai recalls how even the poorest in China would share sunflower seeds with each other as gestures of camaraderie. Because the room is full of 100 million seeds, Ai also critiques the Chinese government's disregard for the individuality of the masses. By selecting porcelain as his material, he asserts the skill of the generations of porcelain artisans and the significance of manual labor in China's economical rise. Form: hyper-realism, uniformity |
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