Crime and deviance

Functionalists
1. STRAIN THEORY: ROBERT MERTON
  1. Merton believed that all members of society share the same values and goals. Merton calls this 'Value consensus'.
    1. CRITIQUE
      1. His theories also to deterministic – not everyone will respond as he said
      2. It ignores the power of the ruling class to criminalise the poor.
      3. And it assumes that everyone believes in this value consensus of shared goals but some may reject it and therefore feel no strain
  2. Goals of society - AMERICAN DREAM
    1. Merton's 5 responses to the American Dream
      1. CONFORMITY: they strive for success in conventional ways and are not deviant. AKA: most of America not criminal or deviant.
      2. INNOVATORS: they develop new ways of achieving success. They are likely to be w/c. They desire goals of society however can't achieve educational success. They turn to crime t become wealthy. AKA: CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR AS AN ADAPTION.
      3. RITUALISM: they are the lower-middle class people and have been socialised into the means of society but they can't achieve success. Consequently, they give up on goals of success and this makes them deviant. They stick to the rules but aren't committed to the dream. E.G. people in dead end jobs.
      4. RETREATISM: some may accept both goals an means but can't achieve success. They may become made, drop out, become homeless and/or withdraw from society. E.G. drug users
      5. REBELLION: these individuals will seek to replace the existing goals of society with new ones. They are truly deviant. E.G martin luther king
  3. Deviance is a result of the strain between the goals of society and the means of achieving those goals.
  4. Merton believed that strain produces a frustration (status frustration) which creates the pressure be deviant. STRAIN TO ANOMIE.
2. DURKHEIM
  1. Structuralist -> Positivist -> Quantitative -> Consensus
  2. He believes that human behaviour is naturally bad and society civilises through the socialisation process.
  3. Crime is inevitable and necessary (Inevitable as not everyone has same norms and values).
  4. Crime has positive functions.
  5. The perfect amount of crime will keep society healthy.
  6. Individualism is bad according to the functionalist theory as it demonstrates that we are operating outside of the norms and values in society that regulates us.
  7. NOTE: Durkheim was writing at the END of the industrial revolution, this is where rapid change is evident (he was writing at a time where crime was high) he saw that crime was a problem of modernity (the transformation into an industrialist society)
  8. He developed the term “anomie” to explain why some people become “unfuntional” and turn to crime, anomie means “normlessness which is individualism”.
  9. Crime can be...
    1. Inevitable – will always exist.
    2. Universal- Exist everywhere (only where there is written laws).
    3. Functional – limited about of crime is good.
    4. Relative – It’s a social construction (changes).
    5. Consensus crimes -> a crime which is viewed as sociological abhorrent that it “galvanises” society (for example paedophilia).
  10. CRITIQUE
    1. Durkheim’s work is important for offering a social dimension of crime.
    2. Crime is a consequence of social processes (eg anomie, rapid social change)
    3. He links anomie to a deregulated, more individualistic, industrial society .
    4. He however cannot explain why some people are more deviant than others.
    5. Hard to determine the “perfect amount of crime”.
    6. Explaining the functions of crime doesn’t explain what causes it in the first place.
    7. Durkheim didn’t explain why some groups are more prone to deviance within certain groups (Merton however provided the answers within a functionalist framework).
LABELLING THEORY
1. HOWARD BECKER (1963)
  1. Howard Becker (1963) social groups create deviance by creating rules and applying them to particular people whom they label as ‘outsiders’. Therefore an act or person only becomes deviant when labelled by others as deviant.
  2. Labelling theorists are interested in the role of what Becker calls moral entrepreneurs. These are people who lead a moral ‘crusade’ to change the law in the belief that it will benefit those to whom it is applied.• The new law however has two effects:1. Creation of a new group of ‘outsiders’- outlaws or deviants who break the new rule2. The creation or expansion of a social control agency (police) to enforce the rule and impose labels on offenders.
  3. It is not the harmfulness of a behaviour that leads to new laws being created, but rather the efforts of powerful individuals and groups to redefine that behaviour as unacceptable.
  4. Differential Enforcement• Labelling theorists argue that social control agencies (police, courts etc) tend to label certain groups as criminal.
  5. EFFECTS OF BEING LABELLED
    1. Labelling Theorists claim that by labelling certain people as criminal or deviant society encourages them to become more so.
    2. Primary Deviance- deviant acts that have not been publicly labelled. They may have many causes, are often trivial and mostly go uncaught e.g. fare dodging. Those who commit them do not usually see themselves as deviant.
    3. Secondary Deviance- results from societal reaction i.e. from labelling. Labelling someone as an offender can involve stigmatising and excluding them from normal society. Others may see the offender solely in terms of the label, which becomes the individuals master status or controlling identity.
    4. Self Fulfilling Prophecy• Being labelled may provoke a crisis for the individuals self concept and lead to sfp in which they live up to the label, resulting in secondary deviance• Further societal reaction may reinforce the individuals outsider status and lead them to joining a deviant sub culture that offer support, role models and a deviant career.
2. LEMERT & YOUNG
  1. Lemert and Young illustrates the idea that it is not the act itself, but the hostile societal reaction by the social audience, that created serious deviance.• Ironically therefore, the social control processes that are meant to produce law- abiding behaviour may in fact produce the very opposite. Although a deviant career is a common outcome of labelling, labelling theorists are quick to point out that it is not inevitable.
3. Deviance Amplification
  1. Deviance Amplification- the attempt to control deviance leads to it increasing rather than decreasing, resulting in grater attempts to control it and in turn more deviance e.g. Hippies
  2. Deviance Amplification is similar to secondary deviance. In both cases the societal reaction to an initial deviant act leads not to successful control of the deviance but to further deviance which in turns leads to greater reaction etc.
4. Differences between Labelling and Functionalism• Functionalists see deviance producing social control• Labelling Theorists see control producing further deviance.
5. CRITIQUE
  1. Shows that crime statistics are more a record of activities of control agents not that of criminals.
  2. Focuses on the underachievers or people who are regarded as lower in society.
  3. Doesn’t look at the motives for why people commit crime.
  4. The emphasis on the negative effects of labelling gives the offender a kind of victim status, thus ignoring the real victims of crime.
  5. It implies that deviants are unaware that they are deviant until labelled, yet most are well aware that they are going against social norms.
MEDIA
1. The mass media plays an important role in shaping ideas, fears and fascinations about crime in society.
2. The media plays an important role in “sensitising” the public into perceiving and reports certain activities as crime. (Bex says don’t trust everything you read!).
3. Deviancy amplification
  1. Deviancy amplification was devised by Leslie Wilkins (1964) to describe how agencies like the police and media can generate an increase in deviance. The resulting publicity has potential; to increase deviant behaviour by “glamorising” it or making it common or acceptable.
4. Stan Cohen (1970)
  1. Moral panic is a false or exaggerated idea that some groups behaviour is deviant and is menace to society (*cough* ISIS *cough).
  2. He used “folk devil” to refer to such groups (or individuals) (*cough* Jihad John *cough*) Moral panic sis generally fuelled by media coverage of society issues 1.Result of moral panic makes you spend more money (eg safety) 2.Media brainwashes.
  3. MORAL CRUSADERS
    1. As media creates a moral panic, they may embark on moral crusades against the folk devils The outcome is to swell public opinion and for the authorities to embark upon a moral “clampdown” on deviance.
      1. MAP
        Moral Panic -> creates a folk devil -> Produces strain and subcultures
        Moral panic - media
        Folk devil - group singles out -underclass (w/c boys, SPF, muslims).
  4. CRITIQUE
    1. Structuralists argue that the social institutions of mass media play an important role in supporting the other social institutions within society.
    2. Post Modernist theorist would argue that it is outdated as most sociological theory ignores the digital revolution.
    3. Marxist argue that the media is part of the “ideological state apparatus” (meaning where a social institution can control our ideology - ideas and beliefs (e.g religion, media, education etc).
    4. Post modernist argue it has reduced dependency amplification due to the saturation of information from social network media (we are becoming more desensitised) .
    5. The individual is no longer persuaded by social institutions the are their own cognitive power/expert.
    6. This reinforces Becks “risk society” we are in a state of individual and personal panic.
CONTROL THEORY
1. HIRCHI
  1. The central question of the theory asks why do people follow the law? AKA WHY DON'T PEOPLE COMMIT CRIME #HATEGOODYTOOSHOES
  2. The theory suggests that people engage in criminal activity when their bond to society has weakened. “social control theory refers to a perspective which predicts that when social constraints on antisocial behavior are weakened or absent, delinquent behavior emerges.”
    1. AKA: when an individual has experienced a lack of social connections or a lack of social network that would normally prohibit criminal activity, the likelihood that the individual will participate in criminal activity increases.
  3. FOUR SOCIAL BONDS THAT KEEP SOCIETY TOGETHER
    1. ATTACHMENT: The internalization of norms, conscience, and super ego is determined by an individual’s attachment to others. Hirschi says this is the sociological counterpart to the superego.
    2. COMMITMENT-People obey rules for fear the consequences of breaking them. This is the counterpart to the ego.
    3. INVOLVEMENT:a person’s personal involvement in conventional activity. Hirschi states that an individual involved heavily in conventional activity simply does not have time to engage in deviant behavior.
    4. BELIEF: a common value system within a culture. Belief plays a role in deviance in2 ways. The criminal either a) disregards the beliefs he/she has been taught entirely, or b)rationalizes their deviant behavior so that they can engage in criminal activity and still believe that it is wrong. This subset of the social control theory involves the strain theory in that it demonstrates an individuals belief in common goals and morals of society, and it shows a lack of means for achieving those goals which in turn encourages deviant behavior as a means of achieving those goals.
  4. CRITIQUE
    1. Mothers should also not be criminal outside fraud Middle class is the most successful ascribed class.
    2. The theory does not explain all types of crime, such as White Collar Crime.
    3. The 4 variables are confusing. Their titles imply a more internalized bond than Hirschi actually meant.
    4. It excludes the upper class or doesn’t explain how they are criminal as they are the most successful ascribed class (given at birth), should have then high levels of social attachment.
SUB CULTURAL THEORY
1. COHEN
  1. SUB-CULTURAL STRAIN THEORIES
    1. COHEN - STATUS FRUSTRATION
      1. Lower-class are frustrated because they want to be successful but lack qualifications and skills.
        They achieve this through non-utilarisiam crimes. E.G. graffiti.
        Because the crimes reward the individual with respect there is not always the need for a monetary value to commit a crime, so the subcultural perspective explains why people commit non-utilitarian crimes.
      2. CRITIQUE
        Not all subcultures commit crime - This is deterministic.
        Ignores free will and consciousness/awareness
        He generalises that all w/c boys will be criminal.
        Ignores meritocratic principles of society.
        Gender specific - causes a reaction formation that what about women?!
      3. Reaction formation -> status frustration -> faced with failure they choose a delinquent subculture -> youths rebound from conventional failure (eg school) (then it circles around again)
    2. Solves frustration by rejecting society by creating own norms and values.
  2. Cohen noted that much offending behaviour had no economic motivation, it was done for the thrill.
  3. According to Cohen, lower class boys aspire to have middle class values and aspirations but they lack the means to get them, this leads to status frustration – a sense of failure and personal inadequacy.
    1. This results in the lower class boys rejecting those values and acceptable behaviour, when they realise they are not going to be successful This is subculture strain.
2. They are neither consensus nor conflict.
3. They are social action theorists who focus on small group behaviour.
4. They assume that that those who deviate (hold different values to mainstream society.
5. It is centred around the idea of crime and deviance is a reaction by a group who reject the majority view and or feel excluded.
6. Robert Merton was accused of not being able to explain non material crime So sub cultural theory developed to explain such crime in terms of subculture.
7. SUB CULTURE = - Individuals who have broken away from mainstream culture.
8. CULTURE = - A way of life of a society norms and values and status and roles within it.
9. CRITIQUE
  1. Subculture theory has been criticised for making white working class boys deviant and therefore subject to self-fulfilling prophecy.
  2. WOMEN + CRIME: WOMEN ARE OFTEN IGNORED IN GANGS.
10. Cloward and Ohlin (1960)
  1. Like Merton, they explain working class crime in terms of goals and means.
  2. But they disagree with Merton that delinquents share the same values and goals as the rest of society.
  3. See lower class delinquents as sharing their own deviant subculture values.
  4. So they develop an illegitimate career structure Because of blocked opportunities, they cannot get on legitimately.
  5. Meritocracy -> Ability = achievement DIVDED BY Effort
  6. CRITIQUE
    1. Not everyone gets sucked into illegitimate career structures.
    2. Fails to consider white collar crime.
    3. Women have more blocked opportunity then men.
OFFICAL STATISTICS
1. Official statistics on crime are collected by the government and published several times a year.
2. These statistics are extensive and include the following: numbers of arrests numbers of convictions types of crimes committed proportion of crimes solved regional variations in crime trends in crime statistics on the prison population and its make-up.
3. REASONS FOR NOT REPORTING CRIME
  1. Too trivial/no loss Common occurrence Police would not be interested Dealt with the matter ourselves Reported to other authorities Inconvenient to report Fear of reprisals Fear/dislike of police Police would not be able to help Too embarrassing Victim may not be able to report the crime.
4. REASONS FOR REPORTING CRIME
  1. They see some benefit to themselves They have faith in the police to achieve a positive result They are scared and believe the police will help.
5. CRITIQUE
  1. Easily accessible and up-to-date.
  2. They help governments to evaluate and shape their policies on law and order.
  3. Identify rising or falling trends in crime by comparing crime rates over time.
  4. The police filter the information supplied to them by the public based on Seriousness Social status Classifying Discretion Promotion.
  5. Artificial fluctuations in crime rates crime rates can be affected by the willingness of the public to report crime, changes in the law, new crimes and opportunities.
GENDER AND CRIME
1. Females more likely to be convicted of property offences than males (except burglary). Males more likely to be convicted of violence or sexual offences• Males more likely to be repeat offenders, to have longer criminal careers and commit more serious crimes (15 x more likely to be convicted of homicide).
2. Do women commit more crime?• Some Sociologists and Criminologists argue that they underestimate the amount of female as against to male offending. There are two explanations:1. Female crimes such as shoplifting are less likely to be reported e.g. Property crime less likely to be noticed or reported than the violent or sexual crimes more often committed by men. Prostitution- more females than males- unlikely to be reported2. Women less likely to be prosecuted and more likely to be let of lightly.
3. The ‘glass ceiling’ prevents women rising to senior positions where there are more ops for white collar crimes.
4. CRITIQUE
  1. Male Crime• Evidence strongly suggests most offenders are males• However what has been overlooked is what is it about being male that leads men to offend• Focus on Masculinity as a way of explaining higher offending rates
  2. Boys have more opportunity to commit crime ‘on the street’ • Boys are pressurised to be risky and reputation is not an issue..being ‘hard’ is.
NEO-FUNCTIONALIST
1. ETZIONI
  1. Etzioni: crime and communitarianism Etzioni, developed a theoretical and political argument known as communitarianism.
  2. For Etzioni, changes in modern society pushed decision-making further and further away from local communities and as a result of this people have lost interest in trying to control their community.
  3. They regard themselves as powerless and this simply reinforces their acceptance that it is not their job to control others, but the role of the police and the state.
  4. Etzioni argues that only by taking back control and engaging in direct action in a variety of ways to control local offenders and by providing support for those in need locally, will social control be reconstituted.
  5. Etzioni is a neo-functionalist.
  6. Post modern society has taken away decision making from local communities in favour of the government. E.g. Reduction in neighbourhood watch, cctv, destruction of local community facilities.
  7. People explore virtual word communities so are stuck indoors. Control can only be asserted when engaging in direct action so people in virtual realities are powerless.
2. CRITIQUE
  1. It concentrates exclusively upon working class crimes, ignoring the crimes of the powerful and white-collar crime.
  2. It fails to explain the causes of crime – apart from blaming inadequate socialisation. The approach absolves the government and economic system of any blame.
  3. The approach ignores ideas of justice and law enforcement and advocates instead the maintenance of social order- even if it is at the expense of justice.

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