Secondary= Formed by hydrogen bonds between
backbone amide and carboxyl groups.
Tertiary= Overall shape of polypeptide formed by
interactions between the side chains (R) bonds include: Hydrophobic, Hydrogen, Ionic
Quarternary= Aggregation of 2 or more polypeptide units
Denature
High temps and PH
Can renature when environment is restored to normal
Carbs
Formula= CnH2nOn
Monosaccharides= Single version of sugar eg. Glucose, Galactose, Fructose
Disacchardies= 2 Monosaccharides joined together eg. Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose
Polysaccharides/Polymers= Many repeating units of monomers
eg. Starch & Glycogen= Storage Cellulose & Chitin= Structural
Monomer= Linked by covalent bonds, formed by a condensation reaction (loss of water)
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by hydrolysis (addition of water)
Bonding
Ionic= Giving up an electron eg. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
Covalent= Sharing one or more electrons eg. Water
Glycosidic bond= Formed between 2 carbs after a condensation reaction
Ester= Between fatty acid and alcohol
Peptide= Happens between 2 amino acids (loss of water)
Enzymes
Inhibition
Reaction Rates
Cells
Passive & Active Transport
Passive= Doesn't require energy, moves particles from high to low,
down the concentration gradient eg. Diffusion, Osmosis. Moves
anything soluble eg. water, oxygen
Active= Uses ATP to move particles from low concentration
to high. Goes against concentration gradient eg,
phagocytosis. Moves ions, proteins, large cells.
Prokaryotic= Bacteria and Archaea
Eukaryotic
Organelles
Nucleus= Control centre
Chromatin= Consists of DNA and protein= Make up chromosomes
Nucleolus= Ribosomal RNA synthesis
and formation of ribosomes
RER=Membrane Factory
SER= Detox of drugs/alcohol, Synthesis
of lipids= Testosterone, Cholesterol
Golgi Apparatus= Sorting, packaging
and distributing
Ribosomes= Protein synthesis
Lysosomes= Remove cell debris
Peroxisomes= Oxidative enzymes
Mitochondria= Cell
powerhouse, generates ATP
Chloroplast= Generate chemical energy in the form of
sugar from sunlight and CO2. Sight of photosynthesis
Vacuoles= In animals temporary remove
debris, in plants permanent may store starch
Cytoskeleton= Scaffolding
Microtubule= Make up cilia and Flagella
Microfilament=Help maintain cell structure
Genetics
Mendel's 2 Laws
Law of segregation
Traits don't mix and stay together, they can be separated again.
Law of independent assortment
Individual traits aren't linked and can be separated.
Multiplicative Law
Using probability instead of punnett squares
Example: Given the parents PpQqRr and PpQQRR, what are the chances of an offspring ppQqRR?
Pp x Qq x Rr x Pp x QQ x RR
1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2 x 1 x 1
1/4 x 1/2 x 1/2
1/16
Photosynthesis
Calvin Cycle
Cellular Respiration
What is produced at each stage?
Oxidative Phorophorylation
Cell Division
Mitosis= Division of somatic (Body Cells)
6 Stages
1. Prophase: Chromatin condenses, Mitotic spindle begins to form..
2. Prometaphase; Discrete chromosomes
consisting of identical sister chromatids
appear. Nuclear envelope
fragments.Spindle microtubules attach to
the kinetochores of the chromosomes.
3. Metaphase: Spindle is complete.
Chromosomes attached to microtubules
at their kinetochores, are all alligned at
the metaphase plate (middle)
4. Anaphase: Chromatids of each
chromosomes have seperated. Daughter
chromosomes move to the poles of the cell.
5&6: Telophase & Cytokenesis: Daughter nuclei
being formed. Cytokenesis typically begins.
Cytoplasm divides to form 2 separate daughter cells.
The time when the cell is not
dividing is called Interphase. (90%)
G1= Gap1= Growing and Functioning. S= DNA
Synthesises. G2= Gap 2= Growth, functioning &
replication of the centrosome
Meiosis= Production of gametes (Sex Cells)
Meiosis I 4 Phases
2. Metaphase I: Tetrads line up at the metaphase plate with one
chromosome facing each pole. Microtubules from one pole are
attached to the kinetochore of on chromosome of each tetrad.
1. Prophase I: Occupies 90%.
Chromosomes begin to
condense. In synapsis,
homologous chromosomes
loosley pair, alligned gene by
gene. In crossing over
non-sister chromatids exhange
DNA segments.
3. Anaphase I: Pairs of homologous
chromosomes separate. One
chromosome moves towards each
pole, guided by the spindle
apparatus. Sister chromatids remain
attached at the centromere and
move as one towards the pole.
4. Telophase I & Cytokinesis: In the beginning of telophase I each
half of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes; each
chromosome still consists of 2 sister chromatids. Cytokinesis
usually occurs simultaneously, forming 2 haploid daughter cells.
No chromosome replication ocurs between the end of meiosis I
and the beginning of meiosis II.
Meiosis II 4 Phases
1. Prophase II: A spindle forms. In
late prophase II chromosomes
move towards the metaphase plate.
2. Metaphase II: The sister chromatids are arranged at the metaphase
plate. Because of crossing over in meiosis I, the 2 sister chromatids of
each chromosomes are no longer generically identical. The kinetochores of
sister chromatids attach to microtubules extending from opposite poles.
3. Anaphase II: The sister
chromatids separate. The
sister chromatids of each
chromosome now move as 2
newly individual chromosomes
towards opposite poles.
4. Telophase II & Cytokinesis: In telophase
II, the chromosomes arrive at opposite
poles. Nuclei form and the chromosomes
begin de-condensing. Cytokinesis separates
the cytoplasm. At the end of meiosis, there
are 4 daughter cells, each with a haploid set
of unreplicated chromosomes. Each
daughter cell is genetically distinct from the
others & from the parent cells.
Tetrad: When
2 homologous
pairs come
together
Protein Synthesis
Transcription
Takes place in the nucleus
Process: The gene coding for the protein required untwists then unzips , the
H- Bonds between the strands break. Free RNA nucleotides from
complementary base pairs with one strand of DNA bases. Weak H- Bonds
form between base pairs. Sugar phosphate bonds form between RNA
nucleotides. mRNA strand is synthesized. mRNA peels off the DNA and
moves out of the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
Translation
Takes place in the cytoplasm or RER.
Process: The ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis. The mRNA strand attaches to a
ribosome. tRNA molecules transport specific amino acids to the ribosome. Each mRNA codon
codes for a specific amino acid. The anit-codons and codons match up and form complementary
base pairs. Peptide bonds form between the adjacent amino acids to form the polypeptide
(protein).