British Foreign Policy - Decolonisation

Transition from empire to commonwealth
1. The plan was for a process of democratisation within the Empire whereby GB would guide the colonies towards self government. This process was meant to be gradual, not rapid and after independence they would join the commonwealth.
2. Critically it was intended that GB would retain its influence within the commonwealth and that the former colonies would continue to cooperate with GB economically and in defence.
3. The commonwealth did not evolve in the way GB had intended. A peaceful solution had proved impossible in Palestine. GB's departure was followed by war, and the establishment of the independent Jewish state of Israel (1948)
4. The nature of GB's departure in India ensured that a friendly regime through which GB could maintain defence links was not established.
Making the empire pay
1. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, because the Empire and the sterling area offered a secure market for GB goods, GB attempted to make the Empire pay.
2. GB invested in the colonies in an attempt to raise living standards (and present a positive image of colonialism).
3. 1948: Colonial Development Act (passed in 1945) earmarked £120 million for colonial development.
4. 1948: Colonial Development Corporation was set up with powers to borrow up to £100 million.
5. 1946: East African Federation was set up in an effort to reform agricultural practises in Africa, and make better use of imperial economic resources - the plan was for 1 million acres of land to be used to grown groundnuts as a solution to the shortage of oils and fats - abandoned in 1949 after all of the allocated budget was spent on clearing 1.4% of land.
The impact of the war
1. Economies were disrupted during the war and this resulted in food shortages, inflation and unemployment after the way in many colonies e.g. Kenya = led to resentment of colonial rule.
2. Matters were made worse in certain intuitions where attempts to modern, which involved increased colonial personnel, were insensitively handled.
Why did GB decolonize? (late 50s-60s)
1. French decolonisation
  1. GB came under pressure due to decolonisation by other European powers, notably France.
  2. De Gaulle decided to grant independent rapidly to 16 French colonies in Africa between 1958-1960.
  3. Belgium withdrew from the Congo in 1960.
  4. Left GB appearing somewhat illiberal. Would damage GB's image to be associated with the Portuguese, who alone of the European powers, refused to contemplate losing their hold in Africa.
2. Economic factors and GB's changing policy towards Europe
  1. GB's economic circumstances and priorities began to change.
  2. Europe's industrial boom and GB's consequent move towards membership of the EEC led to GB's pattern of trade shifting away from the commonwealth and towards Europe.
  3. Imports from the CW declined from 41.9% in 1950 to 34.6% in 1960, whilst exports fell from 47.7% to 40.3%
  4. Cost Benefit Analysis: review of the costs of the empire compared to the gains it offered. Showed that GB investments in non-colonial markets were more profitable than in colonial ones - GB no longer benefiting economically from the empire and any withdrawal would have no economic cost.
  5. POST WAR ECONOMIC STRATEGY WAS CLOSELY GEARED TO ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT DEMANDED THE RETENTION OF COLONIAL RULE RATHER THAN ITS RELINQUISHMENT + ECONOMIC EXPLOITATION RATHER THAN DECOL WAS THE PRIMARY AGENDA FOR GB FOLLOWING WW2.
  6. With the creation of the EEC in 1957, Europe became the focal point of GB's economic interests.
  7. Between 1954-1960, GB's exports to Europe rose by 29% compared to the 1% increase with the sterling area.
3. Growth of nationalism
  1. Gold Coast
    1. GB proposed a new constitution bringing the whole country under 1 legislation.
    2. Post war economic difficulties and insensitive attempts to to modernise the country both politically and in agriculture, made colonial rule unpopular.
    3. Had felt the impact of the war in the form of food shortages and inflation
    4. Had the effect of uniting different interest groups under the banner of nationalism and the formation of the United Gold Coast Convention.
    5. Independence as the new state of Ghana was granted in 1957 with the leader being Kwame Nkrumah.
  2. Kenya
    1. 1952: Mau Mau rebellion took place against colonial rule. Drawn from the Kikuyu tribe who were resentful of the lack of economic opportunities under colonial rule. Had long standing claim to land farmed by white settlers.
    2. 1963: Jomo Kenyatta became leader of an independent Kenya.
  3. Western educated figures, such as Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in India or Kwame Nkrumah in the Gold Coast, provided sophisticated and determined leadership for mass movements to end GB rule.
4. Changing popular attitudes
  1. Increased violence in Nyasaland, Hola detention camp massacre.
  2. 1960: anti-imperial opinion was being mobilised at the UN, which had been transformed by the admission of former colonies such as India.
  3. The example of Algeria, where France had waged a long and draining war against a nationalist movement, was a warning against trying to hold on by force.
  4. GB's image would be severely damaged if it were to be associated with the Portuguese, who alone of the European powers, refused to contemplate losing their hold on Africa.
  5. Nyasaland: GB was criticised for having created a 'police state'.
5. Impact of Suez
  1. Major impact
    1. France responded by rapidly withdrawing from its empire - encouraged GB to do the same.
    2. Nasser used it as a reason to give aid to help nationalists in other countries.
    3. Showed GB's subservient to the US, exposed GB's weaknesses which triggers feelings that they are not able to maintain their empire.
    4. Used by Macmillan to convince pro-Empire Conservatives of the limits and problems of the empire.
    5. Led to Macmillans 'wind of change' speech (1960).
  2. Limited impact
    1. Other factors were important in decolonisation.
Withdrawl from India (1947)
1. 1942: an agreement was reached with GB that a condition for India's continued support for the war effort would be the granting of independence once it was over.
2. For the 3 religious groups in India, Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs, incorporation within one sovereign state was never going to be acceptable.
3. The date for the formal need of GB rule was brought forward from 1948 to 1947.
4. With the reluctance of the various parties in India to accept a single state, partition appeared the only solution.
5. Civil war broke out within a week of GB's departure.
Economic factors
1. Costs of the war had left GB heavily dependent upon the US economically - US loan of 3.75 bil was made in 1945.
2. US financial aid in the form of the Marshall Plan and Truman Doctrine enabled GB to withdraw from some of its extensive post war commitments - Greece (1947)
3. GB's approach was to reduce its global commitments so it could concentrate on consolidating its position with colonies that would be profitable.
4. Withdrawal from Palestine + India so soon after the war represented a policy a policy of withdrawing from problematic areas in order for GB to focus on nurturing and reconstructing its position elsewhere in the Empire.
The Sterling Area
1. Consisted of those countries, most within the empire, which used sterling as their own local currency or which 'pegged' their local currency to sterling.

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British Foreign Policy - Decolonisation

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