Genetic manipulation of microorganisms

GM bacteria used to create large quantities of useful substances
Used to store a living record of the DNA of another organism in DNA libraries <-- source of DNA fragments for further genetic engineering applications
Widely used tool in research for developing medical techniques and industrial processes
Genetically engineered pathogens not as widely used for health and safety risks --> used only for medical research and is strictly regulated

Ethical concerns

Relatively little ethical debate over GM microorganims except for the manipulation of pathogens for biological warfare

GM plants

Insect resistance in GM soya beans

Major world crop
Scientists inserted a gene to make them resistant to pest insects and to resist weed killer
Farmers can spray fields with weedkiller without killing the soya beans --> reduce competition
Farmers don't need to use pesticides
Enables bigger yields with less labour and less expense

Benefits and risks of GM crops

Pest resistance --> reduce amount of pesticide spraying so protects the environment and helps farmers, higher yields , non-pest insects may be damaged by the toxins, pest may become resistant
Disease resistance --> crop varieties resistant to common diseases to reduce loss/increase yield, genes may spread to wild populations and cause problems
Herbicide resistance --> herbicides can be used to reduce competition and increase yields, biodiversity reduced, fear of superweeds
Extended shelf-life --> reduces food waste, reduce commercial value and demand for the crop
Growing conditions --> plants can grow in wider range of conditions
Nutritional value --> value of crops can be increased, people may be allergic to the different proteins
Medical uses --> plants may be used to produce human medicines

Patenting and technology transfer

People in less economically developed countries prevented from using GM plants because patents make them too expensive

GM animals

Harder to produce GM vertebrates
Scientists researching use of microinjections and modified viruses to carry new genes to animal DNA
Goals include the transfer of disease resistance or to modify the physiology of farm animals (swine-fever resistant pigs or faster-growing salmon)

Pharming

Pharming = genetic engineering of animals to produce human medicines
Creating animal models --> addition or removal of specific genes so that animals develop certain diseases for testing of new therapies
Creating human proteins --> introduction of human gene coding for medically required protein, gene is inserted into pregnant cow, sheep or goat so that the gene is expressed and the protein is present in their milk

Ethical issues

Gene therapy in humans

Some human diseases are the result of faulty genes
Somatic gene therapy = replacing the mutant allele with a healthy allele in the affected somatic cells
Only a temporary solution --> the somatic cells are replaced by stem cells which only have the faulty allele before long
Treatment won't stop the faulty gene being passed on to any children the individual has
Germ line gene therapy = inserting of healthy allele into egg or embryo immediately after fertilisation (IVF)
Illegal for human embryos
Potential impact on human embryos is unknown
Human rights of unborn baby could be seen as being violated
Technology may eventually be used to let people choose desirable characteristics for their offspring

DNA profiling