Emile Durkheim was of the opinion that every society shares a set of core values. How does he refer to this?

According to Durkheim, a strong collective conscience, supported by a fair legal system, formed the basis of social order. However, Durkheim did identify that there are two different sides of crime and deviance. What are they?

Durkheim argues that crime, in limited amounts, is necessary for any society for three main reasons. What are they?

Other writers have also suggested that crime can have positive effects. Which sociologist describes crime as a 'safety valve'?

Which sociologist stated that crime can actually improve the economy and employment rate by creating jobs for law enforcement?

However, the idea that crime benefits society goes against the typical view that crime is harmful. ich left realists stress that crime can cause real problems for victims, especially those who are already at a disadvantage?

What do right realists James Wilson and George Kelling point out about the negative consequences of crime?

While certain limited amounts of crime can have positive effects, too much crime has negative consequences. According to Durkheim, excessive crime could be the result of which two problems with the collective conscience?

What is meant by 'anomie'?

What is meant by 'egoism'?

According to Tim Newburn, which two aspects of Durkheim's work have been central in the development of sociological thinking on crime?

However, what did Newburn think Durkheim paid too little attention to?

What does Durkheim potentially exaggerate?

How do Ian Taylor et al respond to Durkheim's view that some crime can be positive?

Furthermore, Durkheim has been criticised for being too vague when defining what?

In the 1930s, Robert Merton tried to develop an explanation of deviance within a functionalist framework. However, on what point did Merton disagree with fellow functionalists?

According to Merton, crime and deviance are evidence of what?

Merton used the example of the American dream, which claimed that even the poorest could reach the highest levels of society. How did Merton respond to this?

Merton argued that the system only works if there is a reasonable chance for the majority of people to achieve their goals. However, in America, this wasn't possible. What were many people subsequently turning to?

Merton identified five different forms of behaviour that can be understood as a response to the strain between goals and means. What are they?

What is 'conformity'?

What is 'innovation'?

What is 'ritualism'?

What is 'retreatism'?

What is rebellion?

Why did Merton believe that deviancy was more common amongst the lower classes?

Because there is no upper limit on success, what do we occasionally see?

Merton has been criticised for his emphasise on the existence of common goals within society. Which sociologist argues that there are actually a variety of goals that people strive to attain at any one time?

According to Ian Taylor et al, what does Merton underestimate?

What does Merton fail to explain?

Nonetheless, Merton's work has been very influential. Which sociologist argues that there is "much mileage" in Merton's work?

Strain theory had a significant impact on Cloward and Ohlin, who agreed with Merton that the lack of opportunity in the legitimate opportunity structure was a cause of crime. However, what did they believe Merton failed to appreciate?

What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'illegitimate opportunity structure'?

Cloward and Ohlin state that the illegitimate opportunity structure has three possible adaptations. What are they?

What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'criminal'?

What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'conflict'?

What do Cloward and Ohlin mean by 'retreatist'?

Cloward and Ohlin can be criticised for overestimating the amount of organised crime that exists in Britain. Which two sociologists found that rather than large-scale, well-structured crime organisations, lose-knit networks are more common?

Cloward and Ohlin's theory implies that there is a neat distinction between the criminal, conflict and retreatist subcultures. Why can this be disputed?

Cloward and Ohlin can also be criticised for failing to discuss which types of offenders?

Albert Cohen was particularly interested in understanding why a large proportion of offending is non-utilitarian. What ideas did he draw upon?

Give examples of non-utilitarian crime:

According to Cohen, a large amount of delinquent behaviour is a group activity. Why can this be used to criticise Merton's theory?

What concept is Cohen famous for?

What is status frustration?

What is the result of status frustration?

Cohen's theory has been influential in studies of delinquency, gangs and subcultures and offers plausible explanation for some offending. However, what does Stephen Box suggest about the number of people the theory applies to?

Which sociologist suggests that opposition to mainstream values is more widespread in the working class because their culture doesn't correspond with the largely middle-class environment of schools?

Cohen's theory is limited in that it fails to explain what?

Cohen bases his explanation upon success and failure at school. What does he underplay?

Subcultural theory and Cohen's work have been criticised by the American sociologist David Matza. What does he argue about distinctive subcultural values?

Matza claimed that all groups in society use a shared set of subterranean values. What do subterranean values prioritise?

Subterranean values sometimes result in people straying outside of society's norms. However, what is important to understand about the frequency of this disobedience?

Many approaches seek to explain deviant behaviour by looking for some rational reason as to why the subculture might have developed. Conversely, does Jack Katz argue?

Stephen Lyng puts forward a similar argument. According to Lyng, what do young males enjoy doing?

What concept did Michel Maffesoli put forward?

Maffesoli was unhappy with the idea that subcultures are stable and clearly defined groups of people who share very similar values. He claimed that subcultures are actually fluid, occasional gatherings. As such, what does the term 'neo-tribe' refer to?

What is arguably the most widely publicised type of subculture?

Despite the widespread media coverage of youth gangs, which implies widespread gang membership, what are the statistics on gang membership among youths?

Researchers suggest that the idea of a gang is defined differently by different young people. Ben Marshall argues that there are three distinct categories of youth groupings. What are they?