Chapter 1:   1. Earths Four Spheres:    A. Hydrospheres       1. Ocean- the most prominent feature of the hydrosphere          a. nearly 71% of Earth's Surfaces          b. nearly 97% of Earth's water       2.Also includes fresh water    B. Atmosphere    C.Biosphere       1. Includes all life       2.Influences other three spheres    D. Lithosphere       1.Earth's rigid outer layer       2. Solid Earth consists of          a. Core          b.Mantle          c. Crust        3.Lithosphere includes          a. Crust          b.Part of the upper mantle       4. Divisions of the Earth's surface          a. Continents          b.Ocean Basins

Chapter 1   II. Earth Science    A.Encompasses all sciences that seek to understand       1.Earth       2.Earth's neighbors in space    B.Includes       1.Geology           a.Physical geology examines the materials composing Earth          b.Historical geology is the study of the origin and development of Earth       2.Oceanography           a. Not a separate and distinct science          b. Oceanography integrates             1.Chemistry             2.Physics             3.Geology             4.Biology       3.Meteorology        4.Astronomy      III. Environmental Problems     A. Problems Include       1. Local, regional and global       2.Human-induced and accentuated           a.Urban Air pollution          b.Acid Rain          c.Ozone Depletion          d. Global Warming       3. Natural Hazards          a.Earthquakes           b.Landslides          c.Floods           d.Hurricanes

I. Minerals Versus Rocks    A. Mineral Definition       1. Naturally occurring       2. Inorganic       3.Solid       4. Have a definite chemical structure    B.Nearly 4000 known minerals    C.Rocks are aggregates of minerals II. Composition and structure of minerals    A. Elements       1.Basic building blocks on minerals       2. Over  100 are known    B.Atoms        1.Smallest particles of matter       2.Have all the characteristics of an element  III. How atoms are constructed     A. Nucleus, which contains        1.Protons- positive electrical charges       2.Neutrons- neutral electrical charges    B. Atomic Numbers is the number of protons in an atom's nucleus        C.Bonding of Atoms       1.Forms a compound with two or more elements       2. Ions are atoms that gain or lose electrons     D.Isotopes       1.Have varying number of neutrons        2.Have different mass numbers - the sum of the neutrons plus the protons        3. Many isotopes are radioactive and emit energy and particles

IV. Minerals    A.Properties of minerals       1. Crystal Form       2.Luster       3.Color       4.Streak       5.Hardness       6.Cleavage       7.Fracture     B.Rock forming minerals       1.Elements          a.Oxygen          b.silicon          c.aluminum          d.iron          e.calcium           f.Sodium           g.Potassium          h.Magnesium        2.Most abundant atoms in Earth's crust          a.Oxygen (46.6% by weight)          b.Silicon (27.7% by weight)

Chapter 2: (Picture Rock Cycle)   I. Rock Cycle    A.Shows the relations among the three rock types    B.Proposed by James Hutton in the late 1700s    C.The cycle       1.Magma          a.Crystallization        2.Igneous rock          a.Weathering           b.Transportation          c.Deposition        3.Sediment           a.Lithification       4.Sedimentary rock          a.Metamorphism       5.Metamorphic Rock          a. Melting        6. Magma

II. Igneous Rocks (Picture of different sized crystals)    A. Form as magma cools and crystallizes        1.Rocks formed inside Earth are called plutonic or intrusive rocks       2.Rocks formed on the surface           a.Formed from lava          b. Called volcanic or extrusive rocks    B. Crystallization of magma        1.Rate of cooling          a.Slow rate forms large crystals          b.Fast rates forms microscopic crystals           c.Very fast rates forms glass    C.Classification- based on texture and mineral composition       1.Texture          a.Size and arrangement of crystals          b.Types             1.Fine Grained- fast rate of cooling             2.Coarse Grained- slow rate of cooling             3. Porphyritic- two rates of cooling- different crystal sizes             4.Glassy- very fast rate of cooling       2.Mineral composition           a.Explained by Bowen's reaction series which shows the order of mineral crystallization           b. Influenced by crystal settling in the magma     D.Naming Igneous rocks       1.Basaltic rocks          a.Derived from the first minerals to crystallize          b.Rich in iron and magnesium           c. Low in silica           d.Common rock is basalt        2. Granitic Rocks          a.From the last minerals to crystallize          b.Mainly feldspar and quartz           c.High silica content          d.Common rock is granite

Chapter 2: (Picture of ________)   III. Sedimentary Rocks     A.Form from sediment     B.Form about 75% of the rock outcrops on the continents    C.Used to construct much of Earth's history       1. Clues to past environment       2.Provide information about sediment transport       3.Rocks often contain fossils     D.Economic importance        1.Coal       2. Petroleum and natural gas       3.Sources of iron and aluminum    E. Classification        1.             a.Detrital Rocks                1.Material is solid particles/Classified by particle size                2.Common rocks are                3.Shale                 4.Sandstone                5.Conglomerate                6.Siltstone             b.Chemical Rocks                1.Derived from material that was once in solution and precipitates to form sediment                2.Through life processes                3.Common rocks are                   a. Limestone                   b.Travertine                   c.Microcrystalline quartz                   d.Evaporites                      1.Rock Salt                      2.Gypsum                   e.Coal                      1.Lignite                      2.Bituminous    F.Produced through lithification        1.Loose sediments are transformed into solid rock       2.Lithification processes           a.Compaction          b.Cementation by the materials              1.Calcite             2.Silica             3.Iron Oxide    G. Features        1.Strata or beds       2.Bedding planes separate strata       3.Fossils          a.Traces or remains of prehistoric life          b.Are the most important inclusions          c.Determine past environment          d. Used as time indicators          e. Matching rocks from different places

Chapter 2   IV. Metamorphic Rocks    A.Changed form rocks    B.Can form from       1.Igneous rocks       2.Sedimentary Rocks       3.Other metamorphic rocks    C.Degrees of Metamorphism        1.Show the rock's texture and mineralogy       2.Types          a.Low Grade(Shale becomes slate)          b.High Grade (causes the original features to be obliterated)    D. Metamorphic settings       1.Regional metamorphism           a.over extensive areas          b.Produces the greatest volume of metamorphic rock       2.Contact metamorphism           a.Near mass of magma          b."Brakes" surrounding rock    E.Metamorphic agents        1.Heat       2. Pressure           a. From burial          b.From stress       3.Chemically active fluids          a.Water- most common          b.Ion exchange among materials    F.Textures       1.Foliated          a.Minerals are in a parallel alignment           b.Minerals are perpendicular to the force        2. Non-foliated          a.Contain equidimensional crystals           b.Resembles a coarse igneous rock    G.Classification       1.Based on texture       2.Two Groups          a.Foliated Rocks              1.Slate                a.Fine Grained                 b.Splits easily             2.Schists                a.Strongly foliated                 b. Platy                c.Types based on composition              3.Gneiss                 a. strong segregation of silicate minerals                b.banded texture          b. Non foliated rocks             1.Marble                a. Parent Rock- limestone                b.Calcite Crystals                c.Used as a building stone                d.Variety of colors             2.Quartite                 a.Parent Rock - quartz                b.Quartz grains are fused    H. Resources from rocks and minerals        A. Metallic minerals          1. Gold, sliver and copper           2.Produced by             a.Igneous Processes              b. Metamorphic Processes          3.Hydrothermal solutions             a. Hot             b.Contain metal rich fluids             c.Cooling magma              d.Types                1.Vein deposits                 2. Disseminated deposits        B.Non-metallic minerals          1. Make use of the materials              a.Non metallic elements              b. Physical or chemical properties          2. Two broad groups             a. Building materials (limestone/gypsum)             b.Industrial Minerals (Flourite, corundum, sylvite)

Chapter 8: I. Volcanic Eruptions    A. Factors that determine the violence of an eruption       1.Composition of the magma       2. Temperature of the magma       3.Dissolved gases in the magma    B.Viscosity of magma        1.Viscosity is a measure of a material's resistance to flow       2.Factors affecting viscosity           a. Temperature (hotter ,ag,as are less viscous)           b.Composition (silica content)             1. High Silica (high viscosity (granitic lava)             2.Low silica (more fluid) (basaltic lava)          c.Dissolved gases              1.Mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide              2.Gases expand near the surface             3.Provide the force to extrude lava             4.Violence of an eruption is related to how easily gases escape from magma                 a.Easy escape from fluid magma                b.Viscous magma produces a more violent eruption II. Materials associated with volcanic eruptions    A. Lava flows       1.Basaltic lavas are more fluid        2.Types of lava          a.Pahoehoe lava          b.Aa lava    B. Gases        1.One to five percent of magma by weight       2. Mainly water vapor and carbon dioxide     C. Pyroclastics        1. Fire Fragments       2.Types of pyroclastic material           a.Ash- fine glassy fragments          b. Pumice- from frothy lava          c.Lapilli- walnut size          d.Cinders- pea sized with voids          e.Particles larger than lapilli             1.Blocks- hardened lava             2. Bombs- ejected as hot lava III. Volcanoes     A. General features       1.Opening at summit           a. Crater (steep-walled depression at the summit)          b. Caldera- ( a summit depression greater than 1 km diameter)       2.Vent (conduit that connects the crater to the magma chamber)    B.Types of volcanoes        1.Shield volcano          a.Broad slightly domed           b.Primarily made of basaltic lava          c. Generally large          d. Generally produce a large volume of lava          e. e.g Mauna Loa in Hawaii       2.Cinder cone           a.Built from ejected lava fragments           b.Steep slope angle           c. Rather small size          d. Frequently occur in groups       3. Composite cone           a. Most are adjacent to the Pacific Ocean          b.Large Size          c.Interbedded lavas and pyroclastics           d.Most violent type of activity           e.OFten produce nuee ardente              1.Fiery Cloud             2.Hot gases infused with ash             3. Flows down sides of a volcano             4.Speeds up tp 200 km per hour          f. May produce a lahar a type of mudflow IV. Volcanic landforms    A.Crater of caldera       1.Steep walled depression at summit        2.Caldera- a crater that exceeds one km in diameter    B.Volcanic neck       1.Resistant vent left standing after erosion        2.e.g. Ship rock, new mexico    C.Fissure eruption and lava plateau        1.Volcanic material extruded from fractures       2. e.g. Columbia Plateau    D.Pyroclastic flow        1.From silica-rich magma        2.Consists of ash and pumice fragments       3.Material is propelled from the vent at a high speed       4. e.g. Yellowstone plateau

Chapter 8  V.Intrusive igneous activity     A.Magma emplaced at depth    B.Underground igneous body is called a pluton     C.Plutons are classified according to        1.Shape          a.Tabular (sheetline)          b.Massive       2.Orientation with respect to the host (surrounding) rock          a.Discordant- cuts across sedimentary beds          b.Concordant- parallel to sedimentary beds    D.Types of igneous intrusive features       1.Dike- a tabular, discordant pluton       2.Sill a tabular, concordant pluton       3.Laccolith          a.Forms in same way as sill          b.Lens shaped mass          c.Arches overlying strata upward       4.Batholith          a.Largest intrusive body          b.Surface exposure 100+ square          c.Frequently form the cores of mountains VI.Igneous activity and plate tectonics     A. Origin of magma        1.Temperature and magma generation          a.Magma must originate from solid rock          b.Temperature melts solid rock          c.Temperature increases with depth       2.Role of pressure          a.Increase in pressure causes an increase in melting temperature          b. Drop in confining pressure              1.Lowers the melting temperature              2.Occurs when rock ascends              3.Partial melting                 a.Igneous rocks are mixtures of minerals                 b.Melting over a range of temperature                c.Forms a melt with a higher silica content    B.Distribution of igneous activity        1.Igneous activity along plate margins          a.Oceanic ridge spreading center              1.Lithosphere pulls apart             2.Less pressure on underlying rocks             3.Partial melting occurs             4.Large quantities of basaltic magma are produced          b.Convergent plate margin             1.Subduction zone             2.Descending plate partially melts             3.Magma slowly rises upward             4.Rising magma can from                a.Island arc in an ocean                 b.Andesitic-granitic volcanoes on a continent             5.Associated with the Pacific basin                a.Called Ring of Fire                b. Explosive- high gas volcanoes        2. Intraplate volcanism           a.Activity within a rigid plate          b.Basaltic magma source              1.Partial melting of mantle rock             2.Plumes of hot mantle material                 a. From hot spots on the surface                 b.A plume may be located below Hawaii           c.Granitic magma source when the continental crust is remelted over a mantle plume

Chapter 19   I. Earth history of astronomy    A.Ancient Greeks       1.Use philosophical arguments to explain natural phenomena       2.Also used some observational data       3.Most ancient greeks held a geocentric (earth centered view of the universe)          a. Earth Centered view             1.Earth was a motionless sphere at the center of the universe             2. Stars were on the celestial sphere                a.Transparent, hollow sphere                b.Celestial sphere turns daily  around Earth           b. Seven heavenly bodies              1.Changed position in the sky              2.The seven wanderers included the                  a.Sun                b.Moon                c.Mercury through Saturn          4.Aristarchus (312-230 B.C) was the first Greek to profess a sun-centered or heliocentric, universe           5. Planets exhibit an apparent westward drift             a.Called retrograde motion                b.Occurs as Earth with its faster orbital speed overtakes another planet          6.Ptolemaic system             a. A.D 141             b.Geocentric model             c.To explain retrograde motion, Ptolmy used two motions for the planets                1.Large orbital circles called deferents and                 2.Small circles call epicycles     B. Birth of modern astronomy         1.1500s and 1600s         2.five noted scientists          a.Nicolaus Copernicus             1. Concluded Earth was a planet               2.Constructed a model of the solar system that put the sun at the center but he used circular orbits for the planets              3.Ushered out old astronomy           b.Tycho Brahe              1.Precise observer             2.Tried to find stellar parallax             3.Did not believe in the Copernican system because he was unable to observe stellar parallax            c.Johannes Kepler             1.Ushered in new astronomy              2.Planets revolve around the sun             3.Three laws of planetary motion                a.Orbits of planets are elliptical                 b.Planets revolve around the sun at varying speed                c.There is a proportional relation between a planet's orbital period and its distance to the sun (Aus) one AU averages about 150 million kilometers or 93 million miles.           d.  Galileo Galilei                1. Supported copernican theory                2. Used experimental data                3.Constructed an astronomical telescope in 1609                4.Galileo's discoveries using the telescope                   a.Four large moons of Jupiter                   b.Planets appeared as disks                    c.Phases of Venus                   d.Features on the moon                   e.Sunspots                   5.Tried and convicted by the Inquisition             e.Sir Isaac Newton                 1.Law of universal gravitation                2.Proved that the force of gravity combined with the tendency of a planet to remain in straight line motion, results in the elliptical orbits discovered by Kepler II.Constellations    A.Configurations of stars named in honor of mythological characters or great heros     B.Today 88 constellations are recognized    C.Constellations divide the sky into units, like state boundaries    D.The brightness stars in a constellation are identified in order of their brightness by the letter of the Greek Alphabet

Chapter 19:   III.Positions in the sky     A.Stars appear to be fixed on a spherical shell that surrounds Earth    B.Equatorial system of location       1.A coordinate system that divides the celestial sphere       2.Similar to the latitude- longitude system that is used on Earths surface        3. Two locational components           a.Declination- the angular distance north or south of the celestial equator           b.Right ascension- the angular distance measured eastward along the celestial equator from the position of the vernal  equinox IV. Earths motions     A.two primary motions       1.Rotations          a.Turning or spinning of a body on its axis          b.Two measurements for rotation              1.Mean solar day- the time interval form one noon to the next about 24 hours             2.Sidereal day- the time it takes for earth to make one complete rotation with respect to  a star other than the sun        2.Revolution          a.The motion of a body such as a planet or moon along a path around some point in space          b.Earths orbit is elliptical              1.Earth is closest to the sun in Jan.             2.Earth is farthest from the sun in July          c.The plane of the ecliptic is an imaginary plane that connects Earth's orbit with the celestial sphere    B.Other Earth motions       1.Precession            a.Very slow Earth movement          b.Direction in which Earth's axis points continually changes        2.Movement with the solar system in the direction of the star Vega       3.Revolution with the sun around the galaxy        4.Movement with the galaxy within the universe  V. Motions of the Earth-moon system    A. Phases of the moon       1.When viewed from above the north pole the moon orbits Earth in a counterclockwise (eastward direction)        2.The relative positions of the sun, Earth and moon constantly change       3.Lunar phases are a consequence of the motion of the moon and the sunlight that is reflected from its surface    B. Lunar motions       1.Earth-moon          a.Synodic month             1.Cycle of the phases             2.Takes 29 1/2 days           b.Sidereal moth             1.True period of the moon's revolution around earth             2.Takes 27 1/3 days          c.The difference of two days between the synodic and sidereal cycles is due to the Earth moon system also moving in an orbit around the sun       2.Moons period of rotation about its axis and its revolution about its axis and its revolution around Earth are the same 27 1/3 days           a. Causes the same lunar hemisphere to always face Earth          b.Causes high surface temperature on the day side of the moon     C. Eclipses        1.Simply shadow effects that were first understood by the early Greeks       2.Two types of eclipse          a.Solar eclipse             1.Moon moves in a line directly between Earth and the sun              2.Can only occur during the new moon phase          b.Lunar Eclipse              1. Moon moves within the shadow of Earth             2.Only occurs during the full moon phase       3. For any eclipse to take place, the moon must be in the plane of the ecliptic at the time of new or full moon       4.Because the moon's orbit is inclined about 5 degrees to the plane of the ecliptic, during most of the times of new and full moon the moon is above or below the plane, and no eclipse can occur       5. The usual number of eclipses is four per year