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Antarctica = a global common

niamh bergin geography case studies / examples Englisch 65 Karten

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  1. 1LOCATION : most of Antarctica is south of the Antarctic circle, with the exception of what ?parts of the east Antarctic coastline and the antarctic peninsula which extends northwards
  2. 2most of the continent's coastline is fringed by what ?ice shelves - the largest being the Ross ice shelf and the Ronne Ice Shelf
  3. 3in spring 2000 the international hydrographic organisation did what ?delimited a 5th world ocean - the Southern Ocean - also known as the Antarctic ocean
  4. 4the southern ocean comprises the southern most waters of the world it has the unique distinction of being a large circumpolar body of water - it encompasses how many degrees of longitude ?360 degrees
  5. 5the souther ocean extends from the cost of Antarctica north to 60 degrees south latitude which coincides with what ?the Antarctic Treaty Limit
  6. 6what lies beneath the 14 million km2 of antarctic ice ?a continent about 8 million km2 formed of two 'blocs' separated by a deep channel
  7. 7the 60 degrees south latitude is also a natural boundary, as at this latitude what happens ?cold, northward flowing waters from the Antarctic meet with warmer sub-antarctic waters
  8. 8this meeting of waters is known as what ?antarctic convergence
  9. 9The Antarctic Convergence is a zone approximately 32-48 km wide, the cold northward flowing antarctic waters predominantly sink below sub-antarctic waters. This mixing and upwelling of waters creates what ?a highly productive marine environment for both marine plant life and animals such as krill
  10. 10the antarctic convergence is a natural boundary rather than an artificial one which separates what ?- 2 distinct hydrological regions
    - areas of distinct climate
    - areas of distinct wildlife
  11. 11this convergence zone gives rise to the largest surface current in the world called what ?the antarctic circumpolar current
  12. 12what are krill ?tiny crustaceans that provide food for penguins, whales, squid and other marine life
    they are full of protein and are used as a health food supplement = krill oil which is rich in omega 3 fatty acids
  13. 13Antarctica is a unique continent as its mountainous and rocky terrain is almost entirely covered by glacial house - what % ?97%
  14. 14the continent is unevenly divided into east (greater) and west (lesser), what is it divided by ?the transatarctic mountain range - contains many peaks above 4,000 m
  15. 15what is Antarctica's average height above sea level ?2,300 m
  16. 16CLIMATE : in addition to being the highest continent, Antarctica is also distinctive for being what ?the coldest, windiest and driest
  17. 17CLIMATE: climatic features include what ?- average temps is - 49 degrees
    - mean annual wind speed of 50 mph
    - mean annual precipitation is less than 50mm
  18. 18CLIMATE : Antarcticas climate can best be described as a ?polar desert
  19. 19thick ice sheets are not the result of heavy snowfall but of the accumulation of small inputs of snow and frost over a long period of time - any ice free areas of Antarctica owe their existence to what ?specific local-scale factors
  20. 20high mountain peaks called NUNATAKS are small areas of rock emerging from above the ice sheets - what is another type of landscape found in Antarctica ?dry valleys - found in high altitude areas of extreme aridity
  21. 21the highly productive marine environment due to Antarctic convergence - the nutrient rich waters support what ?phytoplankton
  22. 22blooms of phytoplankton provide food for what ?krill and other dependent species
  23. 23THREATS TO ANTARCTICA: the discovery of the islands of the Southern Ocean in the 18th century led to the start of what ?the exploitation of the area
  24. 24THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : whaling began in the 19th century, the main targets were blue and right whales - the main products of these were ?oil, meat and whalebone
  25. 25THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : as the whale population of the north Atlantic became reduced by massive exploitation the whalers turned their attention to the southern ocean - what countries did whalers come from ?- Norway
    - USA
    - UK
  26. 26THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : whaling was a highly profitable business but by 1985 stocks were so dangerously low that what happened ?most commercial whaling ceased
  27. 27THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : the international whaling commission (IWC) was set up in 1946 to do what ?monitor and conserve global whale stocks and oversee whaling industry - it was a voluntary organisation
  28. 28THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : the establishment of the IWC eventually led to this end of most whaling in 1985 but what was an issue ?not all whaling nations agreed to halt slaughter
  29. 29THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : in 1994 IWC established the Souther Ocean Whale Sanctuary - an area of 50 million km2, which banned all types of commercial whaling - only what country opposed the agreement ?japan
  30. 30THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : commercial whaling is prohibited in this sanctuary though japan has continued to hunt whales in accordance with provision in the IWC charter permitting whaling for the purpose of scientific research - japan's position on whaling has done what ?caused tensions over the issue
  31. 31THREATS : FISHING AND WHALING : fishing now replaced whaling, commercial fishing is becoming a significant threat to the southern ocean and antarctica why?due to russian and japanese exploitation of the southern ocean for antarctic cod and krill
  32. 32THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: the impact of climate change on Antarctica is a widely debated - what are the two views about the impact ?1. global warming is melting the polar ice caps, sea ice and land ice
    2. view that global warming is not affecting the antarctic at all as the land ice is growing
  33. 33THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: only some of the land ice on the eastern side is growing but in actuality it is the eastern SEA ICE that is increasing dramatically - what about the western side?this side is loosing a significant amount of land ice and is not gaining any sea ice
  34. 34THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: East Antarctica's ice sheet is thickening - what are the reasons why climate change may contribute to Antarctic sea ice expansion ?- increasing westerly winds around southern ocean = climate change = ozone depletion = driving seas northwards
    - more rain and snow resulting from climate change are layering the southern ocean with a cooler denser layer on top
    - storms are also freshening the local water = less salty = raising the temp needed for sea ice to form
    - increased melting of continental land ice = more floating ice bergs = sea ice formation
  35. 35THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: the antarctic peninsula is particularly sensitive to small rises in the annual average temp - this area has experienced air temp increases of nearly what degrees in the last 50 years ?3 degrees Celsius
  36. 36THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: the temperature of Western Antarctica has risen and as a result, the West Antarctic sheet has thinned significantly - this warming is not restricted to the land and southern ocean temperatures to the west of the peninsula have increased by what degrees since 1955 ?1 degrees
  37. 37THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: is has also been established that what is warming more rapidly than the global ocean as a whole ?antarctic circumpolar current
  38. 38THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: this warming has had what effects on the physical and living environment of Antarctica ?- distribution of penguin colonies has changed
    - melting of snow and ice cover has increased colonisation by plants
    - decline in the abundance of Antarctic krill
    - glaciers and ice shelves fringing the peninsula have retreated
  39. 39THREATS : CLIMATE CHANGE: climate change and the increase of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere can lead to what?ocean acidification - waters become corrosive to unprotected shells and skeletons = loss of these organisms will disrupt food webs
  40. 40THREATS: SEARCH FOR MINERAL RESOURCES : there has never been commercial mining as it is completely banned by the Antarctic treaty - sizeable mineral deposits that are easy to reach are rare and even then not yet what ?economically viable to mine
  41. 41THREATS: SEARCH FOR MINERAL RESOURCES : what are the known mineral deposits ?coal, oil, manganese, titanium and even gold and silver
  42. 42THREATS: SEARCH FOR MINERAL RESOURCES : any mineral exploitation would have to overcome the seriously hostile environment, not at least the major problem of what?inaccessibility = extreme climate and the deep covering of moving ice sheet and glaciers
  43. 43THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: the continent is not populated except for scientists at a small number of permanent research stations, there is a transient population of around ?4000 scientists
  44. 44THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: scientific researchers working either in the interior near the south pole or in coastal areas are what ?well briefed about the need for care of the Antarctic environment but any activity is bound to create some degree of disturbance to the environment and wildlife
  45. 45THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: impacts from scientific research are mainly caused by what ?- vehicle exhausts
    - construction of buildings / facilities
    - runways
    - disposal of waste
    - plastics / rope
  46. 46THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: what are the 3 main types of Antarctic tourism ?- camping trips for naturalists, photographers and journalists
    - ship-board visits = mainly by cruise liners (50-100 ppl)
    - over flights
  47. 47THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: tourists are carefully briefed on the code of conduct in terms of behaviour ashore, adherence to health and safety requirements and rules about wild life observation - what do most cruises follow ?the Lindblad Plan which manages itineraries in a way to ensure that any impacts are negligible
  48. 48THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: when visiting one of the 200 sites, the group is divided into a boatload of 20 each led by an expert guide - captains and guides are required to do what ?observe the rules laid down by the international Association of Antarctic Tour Operators (IAATO)
  49. 49THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: research on the impacts of tourism is undertaken by the Scott Polar Research Institute - their published findings show that Antarctica has been little effected - give some of their findings- antarctic tourism = well run industry with a sound record for env concern
    - guidelines are widely accepted by operators and tourists alike
    - damage to veg is due to natural causes - tourists are usually v careful to not walk on any areas of veg
    - no litter is attributed to tourists - more concerned with waste around scientific research stations
    - out of 200 landing sites only 5% showed wear and tear
  50. 50THREATS : TOURISM AND RESEARCH: despite these encouraging signs what are some concerns ?- antarctic ecosystem = very fragile = disturbances leave imprint for LONG time
    - the demand for fresh water is difficult to meet
    - land-based installations and wildlife clustered in the few free-ice locations = not enough space
    - visitor pressure felt on cultural heritage sites such as old whaling and sealing stations
    - unique legal status of antarctica = difficult to enforce any code of behaviour
  51. 51PROTECTION : concepts of mitigation, resilience and adaption are carefully researched and monitored by scientific researchers from bodies such as ?Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research (SCAR)
  52. 52PROTECTION : ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM (ATS): this is the main remedy for the international governance of antarctic - improved scientific knowledge and more advance equipment have allowed greater access to Antarctica - what threat does this pose ?As with the high seas, this poses the threat of unchecked resource exploitation
  53. 53PROTECTION : ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM (ATS): in 1959 what was signed by the nations that had been active on the continent in order to not recognise dispute, establish or allow future claims of territorial sovereignty ?the Antarctic Treaty 1959
  54. 54PROTECTION : ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM (ATS): the Antarctic Treaty 1959 resolved the issue of sovereignty, what is some of the things it sets out?- stipulates A should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes = military activities are specifically prohibited
    - guarantees continued freedom to conduct scientific research
    - promotes international scientific co-operation
    - prohibits nuclear explosion
  55. 55PROTECTION : ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM (ATS): since coming into force in 1961 the Antarctic Treaty (1959) has been recognised as what ?one of the most successful international agreements
    PROBLEMATIC DIFFERENCES OVER TERRITORIAL CLAIMS HAVE BEEN SET ASIDE
  56. 56PROTECTION : ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM (ATS): the process of consensus has allowed the AT 1959 to evolve into a system with a no. of components that meet the needs of managing activities in the A while still protecting national interests - what other agreements does the Antarctic treaty system comprise?- the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty (Madrid Protocol)
    - Convention of Antarctic Seals
    - the Conservation of Antarctic Marine living resources
  57. 57PROTECTION : ANTARCTIC TREATY SYSTEM (ATS): all of the supplementary agreements have now added to the scope of protection which now includes what ?- protection of the Antarctic env
    - conservation of plants and animals
    - preservation of historic sites
    - designation and management of protected areas
    - management of tourism
  58. 58PROTECTION : MADRID PROTOCOL: this protocol was negotiated by the UN and treaty members, its purpose was what?to give extra protection to the environment of Antarctica - especially against mineral exploration
  59. 59PROTECTION : MADRID PROTOCOL: what are some of the things the protocol does ?- designates Antarctica as a 'natural reserve, devoted to peace and science'
    - establishes env principles for the conduct of all activities
    - prohibits mining or any mineral resource exploration
    - requires that waste of all kinds be returned to the country of origin
  60. 60PROTECTION : IWC: global body responsible for the conservation of whales and the management of whaling, what is the main duty of the IWC ?to keep under review the measures laid down by the whaling convention
  61. 61NGOs: The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition: in order to carry more influence with governments on the world stage, a group of over 30 different NGOs from around the world joined to form a coalition under one umbrella group = ASOC, what are some of the NGOs in this group?Friends of the earth
    Greenpeace
    WWF
  62. 62NGOs: The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition: in 1991 ASOC was granted observer status in the ATS and is now able to attend annual meetings - what do its campaigns focus on?- negotiating a legally binding polar code, covering all vessels operating in the SO
    - regulating Antarctic tourism
    - mitigating the impacts of climate change
  63. 63NGOs: The Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition: ASOC is the only NGO working full time to preserve Antarctica and the surrounding Southern Ocean and continues to be what ?the strong and powerful NGO lobby for environmental protection
  64. 64ASSESSMENT OF GLOBAL GOV IN A : what are some reasons why it has been successful / effective ?governance through the Antartic Treaty System has been effective as it has become recognised as one of the most successful sets of international agreements = which has set an example of peaceful cooperation for the rest of the world
    - mutual trust clearly works in antarctica and the SO coupled with expertise, lobbying and promoting of NGOs - participating govs to all antarctic agreements are moving forward in the protection of this global common
  65. 65ASSESSMENT OF GLOBAL GOV IN A : what are arguments for that it hasn't been effective ?- decision making that takes place within the ATS can be problematic = if one country feels strongly about an issue it can stop a resolution from going forward
    - without legal penalties for violating agreements - most parties are on their honour to abide by their obligations
    - the consensus-based decision making process can be often slow to produce results

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geography case studies / examples (global governance ) Karteikarten am Antarctica = a global common , erstellt von niamh bergin am 27/05/2018.
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