Karteikarten
Love Hurts
Karten in diesem Stapel (46)
- 1What are the steps of follicle and oocyte development? (9 steps)1. FSH promotes follicles to develop
2. Primordial follicles in egg nest
3. Formation of primary follicles
4. Formation of secondary follicles
5. Formation of tertiary follicles
6. LH surge
7. Ovulation
8. Formation of corpus leuteum (secretes progesterone and oestrogen)
9. Formation of corpus albicans - 2What are the two phases of the ovarian cycle?Follicular phase: follicle development -> expulsion of oocyte, Day 0-14
Luteal phase: development and degeneration of corpus luteum, Day 15-28+ - 3What is the uterine cycle and the two phases?- Changes in the endometrium layer of the uterus over the 28 day cycle
Proliferative phase: oestrogen promotes growth of the endometrium
Secretory phase: oestrogen and progesterone secreted by corpus luteum promote growth of endometrial glands, which begin to secrete glycogen - 4What is the summary of hormonal control in female reproductive cycle?GnRH: hypothalamus produces GnRH
FSH (Ant. Pit): stimulate development of follicles
LH (Ant. Pit): Large LH surge promotes ovulation
Oestrogen: moderate levels produced initially by developing follicles inhibits FSH- inhibits development of more follicles, also promotes repair of endometrium
High levels as dominant follicle develops promotes GnRH, which in turn stimulates LH and FSH
Oestrogen and progesterone (post ov): increased levels produced by corpus luteum inhibits FSH and LH, whilst also promoting development of the endometrium ready for implantation - 5What are the two types of cells in the seminiferous tubules, what are the seminiferous tubules?Spermatognia (sperm stem cells)
- remain dormant during childhood until puberty, sperm mature as they move towards the lumen
Primary spermatocytes ->secondary spermatocytes ->spermatids ->sperm
Sertoli cells
support the developing sperm and form a blood-testis barrier
Lydia cells: produce testosterone - 6What pathways do the sperm travel?Seminiferous tubules -> rete testis -> ductus epididymis -> ductus deferens -> ejaculatory ducts -> urethra
- 7What are the 5 temporary contraceptions?Oral contraception: daily tablet of progesterone and oestrogen followed by sugar tablets
Male condom: physical barrier that prevent sperm being released into the vagina
Intrauterine device: T-shaped device placed into the uterus, copper used as spermicide
Rhythm method: abstain from sex during fertile period
Morning after pill - 8What are the 3 results of cells in a pap smear?Metaplasia: cells change from one distinct/differentiated cell type to another distinct/differentiated cell type
Dysplasia: tissue becomes disordered in appearance, often with an increase in the number of immature cells, and greater variability between cells
Neoplasia: The development of tumours or cancerous tissue - 9What are the relevant fertility tests for female and male?Female
- egg reserve test, estimates the number of eggs in the ovaries, involves a blood test to test for AMH
Male
- semen sample, loos at number (over 15million per micro litre is normal) and shape of the sperm - 10What is the path that the sperm must take?1. Through the vagina
- the vaginal walls are acidic which kill of sperm, vagina produces mucus to help sperm swim
2. Sperm get lost in cervix and dont make it to the uterus, cervical mucus thins during ovulation
3. then enter uterus, WBCs can kill sperm
4. must work out which fallopian tube to go up because they dont know where the egg is
5. sometimes a oocyte is yet to be released
6. final race to see which sperm can penetrate first - 11How many sperm would make it?- Only 0.01% of ejaculated sperm actually reach the ovulated oocyte
- Approx 200 million ejaculated
- Fewer than 2 million reach even the cervix
- Only about 200 reach the secondary oocyte - 12Whats the difference between infertile and sterile?Infertile: reduced likelihood of being able to concieve e.g. low sperm count
Sterile: inability to concieve e.g. surgical sterilisation - 13What are infertility causes?- 30% related to male infertility
- 30% related to female infertility
- Remaining combination of both or unknown - 14What can effect male fertility?Low sperm production/count/motility
- heat, smoking, chronic marijuana/alcohol use, anabolic steroid use
Blockage of sperm passage
- vasectomy, STi's
Functional problems
- impotence
Hormonal problems
- hypothalamus doesnt produce enough GnRH, ant pit doesnt produce FSH or LH - 15How are sperm normally heat protected?- Requires an environment 2-3 degrees below core body temperature
- Cremaster muscle contracts when its cold bringing the testes closer to the body to absorb heat
- Dartos muscle contracts which causes skin to wrinkle, reduces heat loss - 16What can effect female fertility?Ovulation problems
Problems with fallopian tubes
- blockage, impedes pathway for sperm
Problems with uterus
- growth of the uterine lining can impede implantation
Other disorders
- polycystic ovary syndrome, endometriosis - 17What is polycystic ovary syndrome?- caused by high levels of insulin or androgens or both
- reason in increase of hormones is unknown
- one of the highest causes of infertility in women
Diagnosis involves the following:
- Hypersecretion of androgens, persistent anovulation, many small ovarian cysts - 18What are the symptoms of polycystic ovary syndrome?- Anovulation
- Excess body and facial hair (hirsutism)
- Acne
- Pelvic pain (burst cysts) - 19What is endometriosis?- Endometrium grows in locations outside of the uterus
- Incidence is around 6-10% of the female population
Treatment: surgery to remove endometrial tissue - increase fertility - 20what are sexually transmitted infections?- An STI is a viral or bacterial infection that you can get from having any form of intercourse with an infected individual
Chlamydia, gonorrhoea, herpes, syphilis, HIV/AIDS - 21What is chlamydia?- bacterial infection
- can be asymptomtic
- can be treated with antibiotics
- During pregnancy, can cause premature borth and sometimes miscrriage, can be passed onto child during birth - 22What is gonorrhoea, herpes, syphilis, HIV/AIDS?Gonorrhea = pelvic inflammatory disease, blockage of fallopian tubes
Herpes = no direct effect on concepion, during outbreak couples shouldnt make contact
Syphilis = can be fatal if untreated, can be passed on to child during pregnancy and cause defects
HIV/AIDS = if pregnant, can become infected with HIV during pregnancy - 23What is a fertility drug?Clomiphene
- Is a selective oestrogen receptor modulator
- It inhbits the actions of oestrogen on the hypothalamus - 24How do normal cells divide and how do reproductive cells divide?Mitosis
- results in identical daughter cells, same as parent cell, starts with diploid and ends with diploid
Meiosis
- results in genetically different daughter cells to the parent cell, starts with diploid and ends in haploid, crossing over - 25What is spermatogenesis?- Formation of gametes within the testes
- Begins at puberty with the secretion of GnRH
- Subsequently LH and FSH are produced within the anterior pituitary
- LH stimulates the release of testosterone from Leydig cells
- FSH and testosterone help to stimulate sperm production - 26What is oogenesis?- Formation of gametes within female ovaries
- 200,000-2,000,000 present in each ovary at birth
- 400 will mature and ovulate during a womans reproductive lifetime - 27What is fertilisation and what is the process?- Process of the genetic material from a sperm and an egg to form a single nucleus
- Uterine contractions help to move the sperm towards the egg
1. Capacitation: sperms tail beats more vigourosly, plasma membrane to fuse with oocytes plasma membrane
2. Enzymes on head and tail movements help to penetrate the corona vadiata
3. Sperm comes into contact with zona pellucide, glycoproteins act as a sperm receptor triggering the acrosomal reaction
4. Acrosomal reaction: breaks down sperm plasma membrane releasing enzymes that digest a path through ZP, pushing the sperm inwards - 28How is more sperm stoppped from getting in?1. Within a few minutes of fusion with the oocyte plasma membrane, the oocyte depolarises
2. Depolarisation triggers the intracellular release of calcium ions which stimulate exocytosis of secretory vesicles
3. The molecules released by exocytsosis inactivate the sperm receptors and harden the zona pellucida - 29What is cleavage and pre embryo development?Cleavage: begins once the two pronuclei have fused together, first cleavage takes 24 hours to occur
Day 3: 16-32 cells referred to as the morulla
Day 6: 200-300 cells which form the blastocyst - 30What occurs in the process for foetal development?Day 10: the amnion, the amniotic cavity and yolk sac have been developed
Day 12: gastrulation occurs, results in 3 layered sheet known as embryonic disc, they form the cells that form the body of the embryo
3 layers include: ectoderm, endoderm, mesoderm - 31What is human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)?- Produced by the embryo beginning about 8 days after ovulation
- HCG rescused the corpus luteum from degeneration
- Continues to produce progesterone and oestrogen until placenta takes control of this role - 32What is an ultrasound?- Sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human hearing
- Uses frequencies of 2 mhz and higher, the shorter wavelength allows resolution of small internal details in structures and tissues - 33What happens if two eggs are fertilised?Dizygotic = fraternal/non-identical twins
Monozygotic = identical twins - 34What are the 3 main symptoms of pregnancy?Thirst = need to increase blood volume to provide additional nutrients and blood supply to deveoping foetus
Fatigue = predominantly caused by increased progesterone levels
Peripheral swelling (oedema) = increased blood volume and increased pressure on blood vessels that retrieve blood from you lower limbs - 35What are the 3 phases of labour?Dilation: dilation of cervix and movement of foetus towards cervical canal, lasts for 8 hours or more, amnion ruptures (waters breaking)
Expulsion: delivery of infant, dilation is completed and contractions reach maximum intensity, lasts for 2 hours
Placental: expulsion of placenta, uterus decreases in size due to muscle tension, resulting in tearing of placenta, significant blood loss controlled by uterine contractions to compress vessels - 36What is the process of contractions?Secretion of oestrogens and myometrium is stretched by foetus
increase oestrogen results in secretion of oxytocin by P.P
Oestrogen and oxytocin stimulate the production fo prostaglandins in the endometrium
Oxytocin and prostaglandins both stimulate the myometrium to contract
Labour contractions occur - 37What is pitocin?- Labour induction
- Synthetic form of oxytocin
Side effects: increased pain, too many contractions (foetal distress, emergency c-section) - 38What is pain and how is it detected?- Signals the presence of harmful, tissue-damaging conditions
Detected by: nocireceptors, free nerve endings which are found in every tissue of the body
What stimulates nociceptors: intense, thermal, mechanical or chemical stimuli can activate nociceptors - 39What are the 5 different types of pain?Fast pain: begins very rapidly after the stimulus is applied
Slow pain: perception is slightly delayed after stimulus is applied
Superficial somatic pain: stimualtion of receptors within the skin
Deep somatic pain: stimulation of receptors within skeletal muscles, joints and tendons
Visceral pain: stimulations of nociceptors within the visceral organs - 40How is pain transmitted?- Ascending (sensory) pathways send information from the periphery to the brain about sensory information
- The spinal tract known for transmitting information about pain is the spinothalamic tract
- Carries the sensroy modalities of crude touch, pressure, pain and temperature - 41What are the order of neurons in the spinothalamic tract?First order neurons: cell bodies in the dorsal root ganglion, Take information from peripheral receptors to the dorsal horn
Second order neurons: cell bodies located within the dorsal horn, initially axons decussate at the spinal cord level, axons then asecnd to the thalamus
Third order neurons: cell bodies located within the thalamus carry the sensory signal to the primary somato-sensory cortex - 42What types of pain are experienced during child birth?- Both visceral and somatic pain
- Within somatic both superficial and deep are experienced at different time points - 43What are the two ways to treat pain during childbirth?Analgesia = relieve pain
Entonox = nitrous oxide and oxygen, provides fast pain relief, wears off quickly so patient has to re-inhale during a painful stimulus - 44What is an epidural?Epidural = local anaesthetic applied into the epidural space of the spinal cord
- INvolved placement of a soft catheter into the epidural space of the spinal cord, analgesic drugs are then administered - 45What are the structures of the mammary gland?Nipple: surrounded by an area of skin called the areola
Lactiferous sinuses and ducts: found from where milk emerges
They then connect to indiviual lobules
Each lobule consists of many alveoli, the site of milk production
Alveoli are lined with epithelial milk-secretion cells
Surrounding the alveoli are myoepithelial cells, that contract the help propel the milk towards the lactiferous ducts - 46What is breastfeeding?Lactation = secretion of and ejection of milk from the mammary glands
Prolactin = secreted from the anterior pituitary and promotes milk production, prolactin levels increase throughout pregnancy, but do not result in milk secretion
Increase ocytocin levels result in milk secretion
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- - Human health and disease Karteikarten am Love Hurts, erstellt von Maddie Cockburn am 20/10/2017.
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