Memory (GIP A)

Memory (GIP A)

1. routines

   • 1. acquisition (encoding)
     • registration of sensory information
     • stage theory of memory
       • short-term memory (working memory)
         • - low storage capacity - slower decay of information (sec-min)
         • shallow processing
           • superficial characteristics of a stimulus
         • deep processing
           • meaning of the material
         • primacy effects
           • tendency for the first items presented in a series to be remembered better or more easily, or for them to be more influential than those presented later in the series   
         • recency effects
           • principle that the most recently presented items or experiences will most likely be remembered best
       • long-term memory
         • - high storage capacity - slow decay of information (hours-years)
     • mnemonics
       • deliberate techniques people use to memorize new materials (e.g. use of mental imagery, organize material by linking first letters of words in sequence that’s being memorized) non-interactive depiction vs interactive depiction   
   • 2. saving (storage)
     • forming a permanent representation of information (memory trace)
     • chunking
       • - memory capacity is measured in chunks - incorporating a number of units into a large unit - process through which items are recoded into smaller number of larger units
     • memory trace
       • physical record in nervous system that preserves a memory
     • memory consolidation
       • biological process through which memories are transformed from a transient and fragile status to a more permanent and robust state (happens over several hours)
     • encoding specifity
       • hypothesis that when information is stored in memory, it is not recoded in its original form but translated (“encoded”) into a form that includes the thoughts and understanding of the learner 
   • 3. loading (retrieval)
     • reactivation of the stored information (Recall & Recognition)   
     • retrieval failures
       • tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) effect
         • condition in which one remains on the verge of retrieving a word or name but continues to be unsuccessful   
     • retrieval cues
       • a hint or signal that helps one to recall a memory
       • retrieval paths
         • the mental connection linking one idea to the next that people use to locate a bit of information in memory
       • context reinstatement
         • a way of improving retrieval by re-creating the state of mind that accompanied the initial learning

2. memory gaps and errors

   • why do we forget?
     • natural decay
       • metabolic processes cause atrophy on cellular level and loss of functional connections in the brain   
     • interference
       • proactive interference
         • difficulties in learning new information because of already existing information   
       • retroactive interference
         • difficulties in retrieving old information because of new information   
   • memory distortions (intrusions)
     • misinformation effect
       • the phenomenon that people answering subjective questions recall wrong information about an event that took place  → intrusions resulting from activation of cognitive schemes/stereotypes → intrusions as a result of making semantic associations
     • false memories
       • missing elements in a memory trace are filled in by the person (confabulation) internal factor: problems with dissociating dreams and fantasies from reality   
     • intrusion errors
       • memory mistakes in which elements that were not part of the original information get mixed into (“intrude” into) someone’s recall   
   • memory disorders
     • Alzheimer's disease
       • caused by - excessive damage to brain tissue - neurons die off over time - build up of Amygloid plagues in the brain earliest symptoms: 1) loss of memory/attention 2) loss of semantic memory 3) loss of abstract thinking later also: 4) severe language difficulty 5) emotional instability 6) loss of bodily functions   
     • Korsakoff syndrome
       • symptoms: anterograde & retrograde amnesia, confabulating caused by severe deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1) = malnutrition most commonly caused by alcoholism or eating disorders   
   • memory loss

3. forms of memory

   • explicit memory
     • conscious memories that can be described at will and can be triggered by a direct question   
     • declarative knowledge
       • knowledge of information that can be expressed in words   
     • semantic memory
       • memory for general facts (including word meanings); these memories are not tied to any specific time or place
     • episodic memory
       • memory for specific events and experiences (personal facts)   
     • flashbulb memories
       • vivid, detailed memories said to be produced by unexpected and emotionally important events
   • implicit memory
     • memories that we may not recall consciously, but that are still demonstrable through an indirect test
     • procedural memory
       • knowledge of how to do something, expressed in behaviors rather than words   
     • priming
       • non-declarative form of memory: faster recognition of a certain stimulus when this stimulus was observed before   
     • perceptual learning
       • non-declarative form of learning where our sensory system effectively adapts to new circumstances
   • sensory memory
     • iconic memory (visual)
     • echoic memory (auditory)

4. neural basis

   • consolidation
     • biological process through which memories are transformed from a transient and fragile status to a more permanent and robust state (happens over several hours)
     • hippocampus
   • valence
     • amygdala
   • storage
     • cingulate cyrus