BIO 150 MIND MAP

1. Regulating services: balance within a given environment
   1. Supporting services: retain biodiversity such as flood prevention or climate regulation
      1. Cultural services: benefits received from ecosystems themselves, like educational or spiritual benefits.
         1. Provisioning services: raw materials such as food and water

1. Positive variation
2. Negative variation

1. Macroevolution
   1. Mechanisms include:
      1. Adaptive radiation
         1. Many new species arise
            1. Filling vacant ecological niches
            2. Following colonization of new area
      2. Mass extinction
         1. Can be caused by climates change or massive habitat destruction
      3. Continental drift
         1. Affects distribution of species
      4. Changes in developmental genes
         1. Gene duplication
            1. Can produce evolutionary novelties
         2. Changes in regulation
   2. Documented in fossil records
2. Mutations
   1. Effect on organism
      1. Advantageous
         1. Positive effect
      2. Deleterious
         1. Negative effect
         2. Connection: These traits come from NS and either help or hurt an organism
      3. Neutral
      4. Connection: The different ways a mutation can effect a mutation
   2. Recombination followed by segregation
   3. Connection: 2 sources of genetic information, both lead to new alleles
   4. Germ-like
   5. Somatic
      1. only the individual
3. Natural selection, occurs when some individuals of a population have genetically based traits that increase their chance of survival
   1. Non-random mating
   2. Sexual selection
   3. Divergent selection
   4. Directional selection
   5. Stabalizing selection
   6. Sometimes, natural selection can lead to a new species. This is called speciation
      1. Speciation happens when a new species is formed when some members of a population no longer breed with other member of their population.
         1. Connection: evolution of reproduction isolation mechanism of maintain the differences
   7. Adaptive traits are any heritable trait that enables organisms to better survive.
      1. If the trait helps the individual significantly, than chances are the rest of the population will develop these characteristics.
   8. Competition
   9. Connection: Red Queen Hypothesis
      1. Many amphibians have narrow environmental tolerances
         1. Connection: organisms need to keep evolving to stay in the same niche
   10. Adaptations
       1. Temperature regulation
          1. Environmental temp. = Internal temp.
             1. Proximate control
                1. Cell organized
                2. Connection: Surface area: Volume ratio
             2. Ultimate control
                1. Evolutionary
          2. Ectothermic
             1. Determined by environment temperature
          3. Endothermic
             1. Internal heat regulation
          4. Internal temp. does not equal environmental temp

             Anmerkungen:

             • Not common.
       2. Structural
          1. Coloration
          2. insulation
          3. Sweat glands
       3. Behavorial
          1. Microhabitats
          2. Basking
          3. Shivering
          4. Sheltering
          5. Migrate
       4. Cellular
4. Connection: Current theory of evolution
5. The Hardy Weinberg Principle
   1. Can be used as a null hypothesis to identify changes in gene frequency
   2. States that the allele and genotypic frequencies in a population will remain constant from generation to generation
      1. Assumptions of HW Equilibrium
         1. 1. No natural selection
         2. 2. No gene flow
         3. 3. No mutations
         4. 4. No genetic drift
         5. 5. Individuals mate at random
         6. Punctuated equilibrium: periods of no evolutionary change are interspersed with periods of rapid evol. change
   3. Talking about a particular allele or gene
      1. ****Does not apply to a whole organism
      2. q = freq. of a allele (recessive)
      3. p = freq. of A allele (dominant)
6. Connection: what occurs in the absence of evolutionary influences

1. Population Bottleneck
2. Founder effect

1. Hybridization
2. Migration

1. Prezygotic
2. Postzygotic
3. Types of isolation
   1. Temporal isolation: species mate during different seasons or different times of the day
      1. Mechanical isolation: structural differences prevent mating to occur
         1. Behavior isolation: species differ in reproduction rituals

1. Observed condition of the character, such as presence or absence of a lung

1. Taxonomic Classification
   1. Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Family, Genus, Species
2. Monophyletic Group
   1. Ex. Amphibians
3. Paraphyletic Group
   1. Ex. Reptiles
4. Share a single common ancestor

1. Synapomorphies
   1. Cladistics
2. Analogous
3. Homologous

1. Bacteria
   1. 10-15 kingdoms
   2. Classified by gram positive or gram negative
   3. Bacillus = rod Spirullum = spiral Coccus = round
2. Archaebacteria
   1. 3-5 kingdoms
   2. Survive in extreme enviroments
   3. Thin Flagella
   4. Closely related to eukarya
3. Conjugation
4. Transduction
5. Usually unicellular and contain circular DNA

Anmerkungen:

• Have true nucleus and membrane-enclosed organelles

1. Undergo division processes
   1. Meiosis
   2. Mitosis
2. Multicellularity
   1. Animalia

      Anmerkungen:

      • Plants also have the following: Mitochondria, cell membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm
      1. Internally digest
      2. Cell membrane
      3. Mitochondria
      4. Cytoplasm
      5. Nucleus
         1. Contains chromosomes
   2. Fungi
      1. Absorb nutrients
   3. Plantae
      1. Contain chloroplast
         1. Required for photosynthesis
      2. Cell walls and vacuoles
   4. Advantages
      1. Avoid predation
      2. increased feeding opportunties
      3. Cell differentiation
3. Unicellular
   1. Protista
      1. Protozoa
         1. Zooflagellates have flagella
         2. Ameobas
            1. Phagocytosis
            2. Pseudopodia
         3. Apicomplexans produce spores
      2. Algae
      3. Fungus-like
         1. water molds
            1. Aggregate into pseudoplasmodium
4. Fungi
   1. ASEXUAL Reproduction
      1. Two genetically different hyphae conect
         1. Meiosis occurs
            1. Spores form
               1. Reproductive cell
               2. Waterproof
      2. Sporulation
         1. Reproduction by spores
            1. Ex. virus, bacteria
      3. Parthenogensis
         1. Unfertilized eggs develop into an adult animal
         2. Reproduction without fertilization by male gamete
      4. 1. Division of cell into two by simple division of nucleus & cytoplasm

1. Has applications including:
   1. Water transport in plants
   2. Water purification
   3. Power generation
   4. Physiology
   5. Food preservation
2. Can be stopped by:
   1. The osmotic pressure to the solution phase
      1. Which increases the escaping tendency of solvent molecules from the solution phase
3. Transported through a semi-permeable membrane
   1. Moves from high water concentration to low water concentration
4. By diffusion
   1. Spreading out
   2. Concentration gradient

1. Isotonic
   1. Hypertonic
      1. moves out of cell
   2. even
2. moves into cell

1. Basic unit of taxonomic classification consisting of a population or series of populations that are closely related

1. Group of individuals of the same species living in the same location

1. Population
2. Density
3. Age
4. Sex ratio
5. Distribution
6. Spatial distribution
7. Population processes:
   1. Population growth
   2. Mortality
   3. Changes in age distribution

1. Species distributed worldwide
   1. Cosmopolitan
2. Species found only in a distinct restricted area
   1. Endemic

1. Composed of different feeding groups
   1. Trophic levels
   2. Guilds
   3. Food chains
      1. Trophic cascades
         1. Cause high population size of alternating trophic levels
            1. For example:
               1. Many ladybugs
                  1. =Top predators
               2. Few predatory files
                  1. =Intermediate predators
               3. Many corn leaf aphid
                  1. =Herbivores
               4. Few corn
                  1. =Producers
      2. The # of species in a food chain affects the structure of the trophic cascade
   4. Omnivores
      2. Humans eat both:
         1. Heterotrophs
            1. Herbivores
               1. Ex// cows
            2. Predators
               1. Ex// tuna
            3. Ominvores
               1. Ex// chickens
         2. Autotrophs
            1. Producers (plants)
               1. Ex// Rice