A3: Population Policies (i + ii)

A3: Population Policies (i + ii)

1. National Fertility Policy in CHINA

   • Factfile
     • pop. of 1.35 Billion
     • pop. growth rate = 0.5%
     • BR = 12.1% DR = 7%
     • IMR = 17% Male = 21% Female = 26%
     • LE = 73 M + 77F
     • TFR = 1.55
     • 90% of people live in 10% of land near Beijing
   • Need for a fertility policy?
     • 1949 - pop. of 500M - M's living in poverty - LE = 40
     • Resources do not match size ( 7% of world land - 9Mkm2)
     • Pop. growth would mean severe poverty and famine
     • China launched a series of reforms to utilise the resource base more fully and to establish China as a major world power
   • 1. Great Leap Forward 1958
     • Mao - "more people, the stronger we are"
     • Industry could only prosper if the work force was well fed - while agriculture workers needed industry to produce modern tools needed
     • China was reformed into a number of communes (5000 families) - 1959 things went wrong!
     • Quickly produced farm machinery fell apart + workers injured
     • Less working in fields + flooding + drought in '59 - only 170M tons of grain - well below what they needed - starvation occured!
     • 1960 was even worse - only 144M tonnes of grain - almost 30M people died of starvation + diseases relating to starvation
   • 2. Early Anti-Natalist policies
     • Early 60's + 70's the gov. sought to reduce fertility
     • Education + advertising programmes highlighted the advantage of smaller families
     • Contraception and abortions more widely available
     • Later marriage encouraged and longer intervals between births
   • 3. The One Child Policy
     • Mortality levels fallen and fertility decrease
     • China had resources for 1.2 B - if fertility feel to replacement level - pop. would continue to grow
     • Initially required to have one child and apply for official approval before conceiving
     • Compliance encouraged through rewards + punishments e.g. forced abortions + compulsory sterilisation
     • Rewards incl. educational opps. healthcare, housing and job security.
   • 4. 1979-1983
     • Strictly enforced with no regard for individual circumstances
     • Reported cases of forced abortions and compulsory sterilisation
     • All aspects of family life were monitored - local ppl. encouraged to pass on info. about anyone disobeying
   • 5. 1984-1988
     • Success prompted gov. to relax policy
     • Local officials would allow some families in rural areas to have a 2nd child as long as local quotas were maintained
   • 6. 1989-1993
     • Late 1980's fertility increased again
     • Regulations tightened
   • 7. 1994-present
     • still in operation but less strigently
     • Reduced fertility with increased affluence
     • After 30 years of anti-natalist policy, the Chinese have lost the desire for large families
   • Evaluation
     • Positive
       • Brought fertility levels down - 1960 = 6 2000= 1.7 - No longer facing overpopulation
       • Universal age of marriage rose - 1960 = 18 2000 = 22
       • China now economically well developed - some success attributed to AN policy
       • Policy successful in urban areas were they are more aware of economic benefits of smaller families
     • Negative
       • Methods show complete disregard for human rights
       • More elderly - LE increases - now problems regarding care for elderly
       • State care for elderly not universal + expensive due to increasing numbers
       • Late abortions and forced sterilisation - serious risks for a womans mental and physical health
       • Rural areas need children to work on farms
       • Culture places greater value on males - reported cases of female infanticide, abandonment and sex selective abortions
       • Gender Imbalance - 120M/100F - Normal 105M/100F
       • Normal family structures changed - next gen. no aunts, uncles and cousins
       • Only child may be over indulged - "little emperors"

2. National Migration Policy in CANADA

   • Factfile
     • Pop. of 33M (UK = 60M)
     • Rich resource base for industry, plentiful power supplies and rich fertile soils
     • 75% of Canada's workforce comes from immigration
     • 1 in 5 Canadian workers and foreign born
     • Always operated a highly selective migration system.
     • Policies evolved over time in such a way that the numbers + types of migrants were controlled to meet economic need
   • 1. Open Door Policy: 1870-1918
     • Economic need - building of railway deemed necessary to tie Canada into an integrated economy (manufacturing in east and agriculture in west)
     • No restrictions on numbers - restrictions on source of migrants - Britain, USA and NWEurope
     • Gov. had control over racial composition
   • 2. Preferred/Non-Preferred countries - 1919-1929
     • Preferred = Britain, USA, Aus, NZ and S.Africa - given financial assisstance to aid their move
     • Non-Preferre = Poland, Romania and Russia - admitted in times of need + lowest paid jobs
     • Non-Acceptable list = people from visible minorities eg Chinese - Exclusion Act of 1923 prevented them bringing family with them
   • 3. Closed Door Policy 1980-1945
     • Unemployment rose + gov. stopped all migration apart from family
     • "Family Reunion" Category - those who are not entering the labour market + only from Britain and USA
   • 4. 1946-1962
     • Gov. sought to increase the number of migrants
     • Renewed immigration was not allowed to alter the pop. composition of Canada
   • 5. 1960- 1986
     • Racist undertones removed - attention was now on the skills of the migrants not the source.
     • Preferred/non-preferred list abandoned in favour of points system - seen as a fairer method of selection
     • Numbers were still highly controlled to reflect job availability - 1980's recession - migration was greatly reduced
   • 6. 1986-1993
     • Pop. ageing and fertility levels fallen close to replacement levels - mid 1980's
     • Gov. viewed migration as a long term demographic necessity not just a short term solution to economic need
     • Canada was at risk of under population - no longer necessary to have pre-arranged job before entering
     • Numbers gaining entry increased from 85,000 in 1985 > 250,000 in 1993
   • 7. 1993-2008
     • Migration seen as essential requirement for demographic stability
     • Still subject to points system - greater emphasis on technical + linguistic skills
     • Gov. set annual target of 320,000 migrants
   • Evaluation
     • Positive
       • 75% of growth in Canadas wokforce is due to migration
       • Since 1992, immigration has accounted for 50% of overall pop. growth
       • National Insurance contributions by migrants contribute to state pension funds + health care for elderly
       • Migration has always been controlled to reflect perceived economic/demographic need
       • More enlightened policies followed since 1967
       • Canada is now a more global society as a result of changes in policy
       • Establishment of "Family Reunion" category allowed close family to enter Canada
     • Negative
       • Earlier policies racist
       • Migration always adjusted to needs of Canada - not migrant
       • Attempts to re direct migrants to less well developed parts of the country have been unsuccessful
       • Increase demand for services
       • New migrants unable to find work
       • Gov. reducing financial help to new migrants