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debriefed participants are carefully informed about the study's hypotheses the Belmont Report defines the ethical guidelines researchers should follow in the United States respect for persons -one of the principles of the belmont report -individuals involved in research should be treated as autonomous agents (should make up their own minds about whether to participate or not) -some people who less autonomy are entitled to special protection when it comes to informed consent like children, people with disabilities, and prisoners beneficence -one of the three principles of the belmont report - researchers must take precautions to protect participants from harm and to ensure their well-being -carefully assess the risks and benefits of the study and consider how the community could be harmed or effected justice -one of the principles of the belmont report -calls for a fair balance between the kinds of people who participate in research and the kinds of people who benefit from it -are the participants representative of the kinds of people who'd benefit from the results informed consent -an ethical principle that research participants be told the research project, its risks and benefits, and then they can choose whether they wish to participate Institutional Review Board (IRB) A committee at each institution where research is conducted that interprets ethical principles and ensures that research using human participants is conducted ethically deception misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire plagiarism representing the ideas or words of others as one's own; a form of research misconduct self-report measure -operationalizes a variable by recording people's answers to questions about themselves in a questionnaire or interview examples of a self-report measure -survey questions -open ended and closed ended -rating scales -interviews observational measure -operationalizes a variable by recording observable behaviors or physical traces of behaviors -may also record physical traces of behaviors what are some behaviors you can measure observationally? overt behaviors (actions, facial expressions, body language, and task performance) physiological measure -operationalizes a variable by recording biological data -usually uses equipment to amplify, record, and analyze biological data examples of how to measure physiologically neuroimaging, heart rate, hormones, brain activity categorical variables -the levels of the variable are categories -also called nominal variables -sex: male and female, race: white, black, hispanic, native american, asian, and so on quantitative variables -also called continuous variables -the levels of the variable are coded with meaningful numbers -ex: height and weight bc they are measured in numbers nominal scale a scale in which objects or individuals are assigned to categories that have no numerical properties; no mathematical meaning ordinal scale a scale of measurement that applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable represent a rank order interval scale a scale of measurement that applies to the numerals of a quantitative variable that meets two conditions: equal intervals between numbers and no true zero ratio scale a scale of measurement that applies when the numerals of a quantitative variable have equal intervals and when the value of 0 truly means "none" of the variable being measured reliability how consistent the results of a measure are validity refers to whether the operationalization is measuring what it is supposed to measure test-retest reliability a study participant will get pretty much the same score each time they are measured with it interrater reliability consistent scores are obtained no matter who measures or observes correlation coefficient A single number, ranging from -1.0 to 1.0, that indicates the strength and direction of an association between two variables. face validity -type of validity that says "it looks like what you are measuring" -the measure is subjectively considered to be a plausible operationalization of the conceptual variable in question content validity a measure must capture all parts of a defined construct descriptive statistics -Organize, summarize, and communicate a group of numerical observations -Describe large amounts of data in a single number or in just a few numbers inferential statistics uses sample data to make estimates about the larger population sample a set of observations drawn from the population of interest population includes all possible observations about which we would like to know something discrete observations can take on only specific values (e.g. whole numbers); no other values can exist between these numbers continuous observations can take on a full range of values (e.g., numbers out to several decimal places); an infinite number of potential values exists the four measurement scales 1. Nominal 2. Ordinal 3. Interval 4. Ratio nominal variables a variable used for observations that have categories, or names, as their values ordinal variables A variable used for observations that have rankings (i.e., 1st, 2nd, 3rd,...) as their values. interval variables a variable used for observations that have numbers as their values; the distance (or interval) between pairs of consecutive numbers is assumed to be equal ratio variables variables that meet the criteria for interval variables but also have meaningful zero points levels discrete values or conditions that variables can take on independent variable has at least two levels that we either manipulate or observe to determine its effects on the dependent variable dependent variable the outcome variable that we hypothesize to be related to or caused by changes in the independent variable confounding variable any variable that systematically varies with the independent variable so that we cannot logically determine which variable is at work hypothesis testing the process of drawing conclusions about whether a particular relation between variables is supported by the evidence operational definition specifies the operations or procedures used to measure or manipulate a variable correlation An association or relationship between two (or more) variables. random assignment every participant in a study has an equal chance of being assigned to any of the groups, or experimental conditions, in the study experiment a study in which participants are randomly assigned to a condition or level of one or more independent variables survey/poll a method of posing questions to people on the phone, in personal interviews, on written questionnaires, or online open-ended questions allows responders to answer any way they like forced-choice questions people give their opinion by picking the best of two or more options likert scale a numerical scale used to assess people's attitudes; it includes a set of possible answers with labeled anchors on each extreme; specifically says "strongly disagree, disagree, neither disagree nor agree, agree, strongly agree" semantic differential format a response scale whose numbers are anchored with contrasting adjectives leading questions a question that includes wording that leads people to a particular response double-barreled questions two questions in one negatively worded questions a question in a survey or poll that contains negatively phrased statements, making its wording complicated or confusing and potentially weakening its construct validity response set a shortcut respondents may use to answer items in a long survey, rather than responding to the content of each item acquiescence when people say "yes" or "strongly agree" to every item instead of carefully thinking about each one socially desirable responding Giving answers on a survey (or other self-report measure) that make one look better than one really is. Also called faking good. sensitive measure more answers on a scale---> more range (more sensitive) observational research gathering primary data by observing relevant people, actions, and situations observer bias occurs when observers' expectations influence their interpretation of the participants' behaviors or the outcome of the study observer effects -aka expectancy effects -when participants' behavior changes to match observer expectations masked (blind) design observers are unaware of the conditions to which participants have been assigned and are unaware of what the study is about reactivity a change in behavior when study participants know another person is watching (ex: being on your best behavior rather than your typical behavior) unobtrusive observations to make yourself less noticeable to observe a certain behavior