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Flashcards on Ethnic Differences in Achievement (2.3)
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- 1How do Tony Lawson and Joan Garrod define ethnic groups?As people who share common history, customs and identity, as well as, in most cases, language and religion, and who see themselves as a distinct unit.
- 2What is one significant difficulty in studying ethnicity and education?There is the problem of deciding who to include in an ethnic group. (e.g. should 'Asians' be considered as a single group, even though this would include people of varying nationalities, religions and languages?)
- 3There are inequalities in educational achievements of different ethnic groups. Which ethnicities tend to do better in education, according to statistics gathered by the National Pupil Database?On average, Whites and Asians do better than Blacks, although there are significant variations between Asians (Indians do better than Pakistanis, for example).
- 4White pupils' achievements are very close to the national average. This is unsurprising as Whites are by far the largest group - 80% of students are White. However, when we look more closely, what can be identified?Major class differences, with many working-class White pupils performing at a lower level than that of other ethnic groups.
- 5Which sociologist found that White pupils make less progress between the ages of 11 and 16 than Black or Asian pupils and speculated that Whites may soon become the worst performing ethnic group in the country?Stephen Hastings.
- 6Many sociologists argue that ethnic differences in achievement can be best explained by examining external factors. What are the three main explanations provided by such sociologists?1. Cultural deprivation.
2. Material deprivation and class.
3. Racism in wider society. - 7The cultural deprivation theory sees the underachievement of certain ethnic groups as the result of inadequate socialisation at home. This explanation has three branches. What are they?1. Intellectual and linguistic skills.
2. Attitudes and values.
3. Family structure and parental support. - 8Which sociologists argue that many children from ethnic minority families lack intellectual and linguistic skills, resulting in underachievement?Carl Bereiter and Siegfried Engelmann.
- 9What did Bereiter and Engelmann say about the language spoken by low-income Black American families?They stated it is inadequate for educational success because it is ungrammatical, disjointed and incapable of expressing abstract ideas.
- 10There has been concern expressed about children who do not speak English at home as this may hold them back at school. How do David Gillborn and Heidi Safia Mirza respond to this claim?They argue that Indian pupils do very well at school despite often not speaking English at home.
- 11Cultural deprivation theorists also believe that attitudes and values are a major cause of failure for many Black children. Why?Most non-Black children are socialised into mainstream culture, which instils ambition and competitiveness. Black children, however, are socialised to adopt a fatalistic attitude and this doesn't equip them for educational success.
- 12Finally, it is argued that family structure and parental support can 'make or break' a child's academic performance. What does Daniel Moynihan note about the structure of many Black families?They are often headed by lone mothers and this can cause financial difficulty, leading to deprivation of adequate care. It also means there is a lack of a positive male role model.
- 13What does Moynihan describe cultural deprivation as?A cycle in which inadequately socialised children from unstable families go on to fail at school and become inadequate parents themselves.
- 14Which New Right sociologist agreed with Moynihan that a high rate of lone parenthood and a lack of positive male role models leads to the underachievement of some minority students?Charles Murray.
- 15Ken Pryce also sees family structure as contributing to the underachievement of Black Caribbean pupils in Britain. After comparing Black and Asian pupils, what does he claim?Asians are higher achievers because their culture is more resistant to racism and gives a greater sense of self-worth. By contrast, Black Caribbean culture is less resistant to racism and, as a result, Black pupils have low self-esteem and underachievement.
- 16According to Pryce, why do Blacks and Asians respond differently to racism?Because the impact of colonialism has effected the two groups differently. The experience of slavery was culturally devastating for Blacks and caused them to lose their language, religion and family. By contrast, colonialism did not have such a strong impact on Asians.
- 17Tony Sewell disagrees that the absence of fathers as role models results in Black boys underachieving. He believes that the lack of fatherly nurturing or 'tough love' is the real cause of their underachievement. What impact does this have, according to Sewell?Black boys find it difficult to overcome the emotional and behavioural difficulties of adolescence.
- 18In the absence of the restraining influence of a nurturing father, what can offer Black boys 'perverse loyalty and love'?Street gangs consisting of other fatherless boys.
- 19Many Black boys are thus subjected to powerful anti-educational peer group pressure. According to Sewell, Black boys' greatest barrier to educational success is what?Other Black boys.
- 20Sewell argues that Black students do worse than Asian students because of the difference in the way they are socialised. What is Sewell's solution?He believes we need to have greater expectations of Black children and that this will raise their aspirations.
- 21While many Black families have absent fathers, what does Sewell say Indian and Chinese pupils benefit from?Supportive families that have an 'Asian work ethic' and place high value on education.
- 22Which sociologist stated that the adult authority in Asian families is similar to the model that operates in schools? How does this benefit Asian children?Ruth Lupton. She claims that Asian children are accustom to the power dynamics and are less likely to misbehave and/or disrespect teachers.
- 23Most research focuses on Black family structures as causes for underachievement but White working-class pupils often underachieve and have lower aspirations too. What did Andrew McCulloch find?Ethnic minorities are more likely to aspire to go to university than White British pupils.
- 24According to Lupton, what may this low level of aspiration by the result of?A lack of parental support.
- 25What is the main policy that has been adopted to tackle cultural deprivation?Compensatory education.
- 26Give examples of compensatory education:Operation Head Start in American and SureStart in the UK.
- 27Geoffrey Driver criticises cultural deprivation theory for ignoring the positive effects ethnicity has on achievement. How does he describe Black families?Rather than being dysfunctional, they actually provide girls with positive role models of strong independent women. This is why Black girls are typically more successful than Black boys.
- 28Which sociologist challenges Pryce's view that Black pupils fail because their culture is weak and they lack self esteem?Errol Lawrence.
- 29According to Lawrence, Black children do not underachieve, because they have low self esteem. Rather, what is the cause of their lack of academic success?Racism.
- 30How does Nell Keddie describe the cultural deprivation theory?As a 'myth' and a victim-blaming explanation.
- 31Keddie argues that rather than being culturally deprived, what are ethnic minority children?Merely culturally different.
- 32According to Keddie, why do ethnic minorities often underachieve at school?Because schools are ethnocentric.
- 33Why do critics of the cultural deprivation theory oppose compensatory education?Because they believe that it is an attempt to impose the dominant White culture on children who already have a coherent culture of their own.
- 34Sociologists opposed to compensatory education suggest two alternatives. What are they?1. Multicultural education (the positive recognition and inclusion of minority cultures).
2. Anti-racist education (the challenging of the prejudice and discrimination that exists in schools and in wider society). - 35What does the term 'material deprivation' refer to?The lack of physical necessities that are seen as essential for life in today's society.
- 36Material deprivation explanations see educational failure as the result of what?Factors such as substandard housing and low income.
- 37About 25% of White children live in low-income households. How many ethnic minority children live in low-income households?Almost 50%.
- 38There are many reasons why ethnic minorities are at greater risk of material deprivation. For example, how does the location of their home increase their chances of poverty?Many live in economically depressed areas where there are not many jobs available and low wage rates.
- 39There are also cultural factors that may lead to material deprivation for ethnic minorities. Give an example:The practice of purdah in some Muslim households can prevent women from working, meaning there is only one source of income for the family.
- 40What measure is often used to identify which children are experiencing material deprivation?Free school meals.
- 41Which ethnicity group is most likely to be entitled to free school meals?Bangladeshis.
- 42Which ethnicity group is least likely to be entitled to free school meals?Indians.
- 43Some sociologists argue that poverty is a product of racism. John Rex notes that racial discrimination leads to social exclusion, which worsens the poverty that ethnic minorities are already facing. What does he state about racism in relation to housing?Discrimination means that minorities are more likely than White people of the same class to be forced into substandard accommodation.
- 44There is also evidence of direct and deliberate discrimination in employment. Which sociologist found this?Wood et al.
- 45What are the internal factors that may be impacting the academic achievement of ethnic minority students?Labelling and teacher racism, pupil identities, and pupil responses and subcultures.
- 46Which type of sociologists are particularly keen to study face-to-face interactions in which labelling occurs?Interactionists.
- 47When looking at ethnic differences in achievement, interactionists focus on the different labels teachers give to children from different ethnic backgrounds. What do their studies show?Teachers often see Black and Asian pupils as being far from the 'ideal' student. Blacks are seen as disruptive and Asians as passive.
- 48How might these negative labels impact ethnic minority students?It may result in teachers treating them differently, subsequently harming their educational performance.
- 49David Gillborn and Deborah Youdell found that teachers were quicker to discipline Black students than others for the same behaviour. Why is this, according to Gillborn and Youdell?Because teachers have 'radicalised expectations' - they expect Black students to be more difficult to manage and consequently misinterpret their (often innocent) behaviour as threatening.
- 50How do Black pupils respond to teachers' 'radicalised expectations'?They frequently respond negatively and further conflict occurs. Black students feel underestimated and picked on.
- 51What do Gillborn and Youdell conclude?Much of the conflict between White teachers and Black students stems from the racial stereotypes teachers hold, rather than the pupils' actual behaviour.
- 52Jenny Bourne found that there is a higher level of exclusion from school among Black boys than any other ethnicity. Exclusions affect achievement. How many excluded pupils achieve five A*-C GCSEs?20%.
- 53Cecile Wright's study of a multiethnic primary school shows that Asian students are also victims of teachers' labelling. Despite the school's apparent commitment to equality, how can teachers' views be described?As ethnocentric.
- 54How can teachers' labelling negatively impact Asian students?They may be perceived to have a poor grasp of English and be left out of discussions, or be spoken to as if they are stupid.
- 55While Asian students are not regarded as a threat, like Black students, how are they seen by teachers?As a problem that can be ignored.
- 56What is the result of Asian students being ignored?They are marginalised.
- 57Teachers often define pupils as having stereotypical ethnic identities. Louise Archer et al argues that teachers' dominant discourse defines minority pupils' identities as incompatible with the identity of the 'ideal' pupil. What are the three identities constructed by teachers' dominant discourse?1. The ideal pupil identity - white, middle-class, masculinised and straight.
2. The pathologised pupil identity - Asian, 'deserving poor', feminised and asexual or with an oppressed sexuality.
3. The demonised pupil identity - Black, working-class, hypersexualised. - 58Archer et al argue that ethnic minority students are more likely to be categorised as having what types of identity?Pathologised or demonised.
- 59How do teachers stereotype Asian girls, according to Archer et al?As quiet, passive and docile.
- 60Which sociologist found that when Asian girls challenge their stereotype, they are dealt with more severely than other pupils?Farzana Shain
- 61Archer et al argues that even minority pupils who perform successfully can be pathologised. For example, Chinese students, who are often academically successful, are also seen as what?A homogenous group, with Chinese girls being too passive and repressed and Chinese boys being too effeminate and subordinate.
- 62Although Chinese students are successful, how are they discredited?Their success is regarded as being secured 'incorrectly' and they therefore cannot be seen as 'ideal' students.
- 63How do Archer et al describe teachers' view of Chinese students?As 'positive negative'.
- 64Teachers see South Asian girls' passivity as indicative of what?Oppressive family situations.
- 65Archer et al concludes that, due to the identities assigned to ethnic minority students, their academic success will be seen as what?An overachievement.
- 66Which study gives an example of pupils responding to teachers' stereotypes by rejecting the labels they receive?Mary Fuller's 1984 study of Black girls in year 11 at a London comprehensive school.
- 67Which study had similar findings to Fuller's?Mairtin Mac an Ghaill's 1992 study of Black and Asian A-Level students attending a sixthform college.
- 68Mac an Ghaill found that students who believed they'd been negatively labelled did not necessarily accept the label - their acceptance or rejection depended on what factors?Their ethnicity, gender and the nature of their former schools.
- 69Heidi Safia Mirza identifies three main types of teacher racism. What are they?1. Colour-blindness (seeing all students as equal regardless of race but allowing racism to go unchallenged).
2. Liberal Chauvinism (seeing Black students as cultural deprived and holding low expectations of them).
3. Overt Racism (seeing Black students are inferior to White students). - 70As well as citing the absence of fathers and the influence of peer groups as a major reason for Black boys' underachievement, Tony Sewell also notes that their responses to schooling can affect their achievement. What are the four responses he identifies?1. Rebellion.
2. Conformism.
3. Retreatism.
4. Innovation. - 71How does Sewell describe the response of rebellion?The rebels are the most visible and influential group despite being a small minority of Black pupils. They reject the rules and goals of the school and expressed opposition through peer group membership and anti-authority 'Black macho' behaviour. They are contemptuous of White boys, who they see as effeminate.
- 72How does Sewell describe the response of conformism?The conformists make up the majority of students. They are keen to succeed, accept the school's goals and have friends from different ethnic groups. They aren't a part of a subculture, perhaps out of fear of being stereotyped either by teachers or by peers.
- 73How does Sewell describe the response of retreatism?The retreatists are a tiny minority of isolated individuals who are disconnected from both school and Black subcultures. They are despised by the rebels.
- 74How does Sewell describe the response of innovation?The innovators are the second largest group. They are pro-education but anti-school, valuing success but uninterested in the approval of teachers, conforming only as far as schoolwork was concerned.
- 75Sewell shows that only a small minority fit the stereotype of the 'Black macho lad'. However, how did teachers tend to see Black boys?As a homogenous group fulfilling (in the teachers' view) the stereotype.
- 76Sewell argues the teachers' racist stereotyping of Black boys puts them at a disadvantage and can result in a self-fulfilling prophecy. However, what does he note about external factors?External factors to school (family structure, street culture, etc.) are more important in producing underachievement.
- 77The labelling theory shows that teachers' stereotypes can be a cause of failure. However, there is a risk that these stereotypes can be seen as the product of individual teachers' prejudices - what may they in fact be the product of?The racist way in which the education system operates.
- 78What is the distinction between individual racism and institutional racism, according to Barry Troyna and Jenny Williams?Individual racism results from the prejudiced views of individuals, while institutional racism is discrimination that is built into the way institutions such as school and colleges operate.
- 79How does critical race theory describe the relationship between racism and society?The theory states that racism is an ingrained feature of society.
- 80How do Stokely Carmichael and Charles Hamilton, founders of the Black Panther party in the USA, describe institutional racism?As "less overt, more subtle, less identifiable", originating in the operation of established and respected forces in society.
- 81How does Daria Roithmayr describe institutional racism?As a 'locked-in ineqaulity" - the scale of historical discrimination is so large that there no longer needs to be any conscious attempt to discriminate because inequality becomes self-perpetuating.
- 82David Gillborn applies the concept of locked-in inequality to education. How does he see ethnic inequality?As so deep-rooted that it is a practically inevitable feature of the education system.
- 83What do selection procedures lead to, according to Donald Moore and Susan Davenport?Ethnic segregation, with minority students failing to get into better secondary schools due to discrimination.
- 84What does the term 'ethnocentric' describe?An attitude or policy that gives priority to the culture and viewpoint of one particular ethnic group, while disregarding others.
- 85Sociologists see the ethnocentric curriculum as a prime example of institutional racism because it builds racial bias into the everyday functions of schools. What are examples of the ethnocentric curriculum?The languages, literature, music and history taught to students are related to Britain and little attention is placed on other cultures.
- 86How does Miriam David describe the national curriculum?As 'specifically British'.
- 87Stephen Ball criticises the national curriculum for ignoring ethnic diversity. What does it promote, according to Ball?An attitude of 'little Englandism', trying to recreate a 'mythical age of empire and past glories, while ignoring the history of Black and Asian people.
- 88Bernard Coard explains how the ethnocentric curriculum may produce underachievement. What example does he give?In history, the British are presented as bringing civilisation to the 'primitive' peoples they colonised. This undermines Black and Asian children's self-esteem and can lead to their failure.
- 89However, this theory has been criticised with the use of official statistics. Why?Because Chinese and Indian pupils are more successful than White British pupils.
- 90David Gillborn argues that 'the assessment game' is rigged so as to validate the dominant culture's superiority. If Black children succeed as a group. what happens?The rules will be changed to reengineer failure.
- 91Give an example of the assessment game in action:Previously, primary schools used 'baseline assessments' to test pupils when they entered compulsory education. However, these were replaced in 2003 by the foundation stage profile (FSP).
- 92What impact did the introduction of the FSP have?When using the baseline assessments, Black pupils were the highest achievers when entering school. Overnight, with the introduction of the FSP, Black pupils were ranked as the lowest achieving ethnic group across all six development areas.
- 93David Gillborn argues that this change in Black achievement levels was the result of which two institutional factors?1. The FSP is based entirely on teachers' judgements whereas the baseline assessments use written tests too.
2. The time at which the test is conducted has changed. - 94The Talented and Gifted programme was created to meet the needs of 'more able' pupils. However, what did Gillborn find through the use of official statistics?Whites are over twice as likely as Black Caribbeans and five times more likely than Black Africans to be placed in TAG programmes.
- 95Which sociologist found that Blacks are more likely than Whites to be entered for lower tier GCSE exams because they are often in lower sets? How does this impact their educational achievement?Leon Tikly et al. This limits their grade potential, as lower tiers can only reach the maximum of a grade C.
- 96What other factors influence what set a teacher places a student in, other than their perceived ability and prior attainment?Disciplinary concerns and their perceptions of attitude.
- 97How does set placement based on presumed disciplinary problems negatively impact Black pupils?Gillborn and Youdell found that teachers have racialised expectations that Black pupils will pose more discipline problems, and therefore these students are placed in lower sets, limiting their opportunities.
- 98David Gillborn uses the term 'new IQism'. What does he mean by this?This is the teachers' and policymakers' false assumptions about the nature of pupils ability and/or potential, which then impacts the students for their entire educational career.
- 99How can new IQism impact student's entire educational careers?Teachers see potential as a fixed quality that can be measured once and will never change. Once a student is in a set, they will not be moved. However, this means that students who develop potential later in life will be forever stuck in a low set.
- 100Critical race theorists argue that institutional racism and other internal factors are resulting in the failure of large numbers of minority pupils, especially Black boys. How does Tony Sewell respond to this?He argues that racism and other internal factors are not powerful enough to prevent individuals from succeeding.
- 101How do critics use the academic success of Chinese and Indian pupils to criticise Gillborn?They state that institutional racism cannot be the answer for certain minorities being unsuccessful, because not all minorities fail - some minority groups are actually 'overachieving'
- 102How does Gillborn respond to the claim that Chinese and Indian pupils are hardworking 'model minorities'?He states that the image of such groups as hardworking performs an ideological function.
- 103What ideological function does this 'illusion' perform?- It makes the system appear meritocratic.
- It justifies the failure of other minorities.
- It ignores the facts that even model minorities suffer racism in school. - 104What must we look at to fully understand the relationship between ethnicity and achievement, according to Gillian Evans?How ethnicity interacts with gender and class.
- 105Whose study examples how ethnicity intersects with gender to affect achievement?Paul Connolly's study.
- 106Connolly states that class and gender interacts differently with ethnicity depending on which ethnic group is being studied. How does he refer to this?As the 'interactions effect'.
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