Crime - created from Mind Map

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In 1933 Michael and Adler defined crime as a breaking of the criminal law

Social Construct

The definition of crime is continually contested and is dependent on power and the power of those that mobilise law enforcement

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Anthropologist Laura Nader (2003) There is a lack of

consensus of what constitutes a crime both locally and globally.

some things are criminalised

Jeffrey Reiman ‘Crime’ is reserved for the dangerous actions of the poor.

Criminal law focused on individual or group crimes, brought about by spatial or social marginalisation. neglecting crimes by

corporations, governments because business and governments are involved in making criminal law to protect themselves and their

property

Some things are not punished

Jeffrey Reiman wrote a report ‘The rich get richer and the poor get prison’, as events such as ‘white collar crimes do not get treated as crimes.

Avoidable from injury in the workplace.Medical malpracticePollutionPoverty

Hillyard and Tombs (2007) expanding the traditional boundaries of criminology.

1) Social harms are greater and more differentially distributed than criminal law allows.

2) The concept of harm incorporates financial/economic, emotional and cultural harms as well as physical harms

3) Defining harms as crimes through the criminal law and justice system derives from social power.

4) Utilising the idea of harm allows for a concept of justice that incorporates the responsibility of corporations, governments and economic systems.

Dependent on time and place

Constructed by powerful people

Social constructionist theory of crime argues that the

definition of crime is a negotiated process that involves the rule violator,

the police, the courts, lawyers, and law makers who define a person’s behaviour

as criminal.

Howard Becker said deviance is a consequence of the

application by others of rules and sanctions to an ‘offender’

Homosexuality

Slavery

The right to have an abortion

Politicians

Moral Panic Stanley Cohen coined the phrase when studying mods and rockers in the 1960s and how judges, police and politicains reacted.

Judges

Police

Corporate and business interests

Individual crimes

Crimes the poor people commit

Crimes of BME minority people

Behaviour of young people

Young people are often seen as perpetrators of crime rather than victims, 'a risk' rather than 'at risk'.

Burglary

Drug possession

shopliftting

Corporate crime

Edwin Sutherland conceptualised “‘white collar crime’ as a

crime committed by a person of respectability and high social status in the

course of his occupation” (Sutherland, 1983, p. 7).

Powerful business and professional men routinely committed

crimes and they were able to evade justice because of their status and their

power (Sutherland, 1983).

Paul Tappan

1) Those offences typically committed by business

people are inherently different from criminal offences

2) Many of the actions Sutherland defined would

criminalise normal business practices Tappan, 1947, p.99)

3) The extension of the definition of crime beyond

the fact of successful processing through the criminal courts is to enter the

sphere of moralising and propaganda (Tappan, 1947).

The hidden figure of corporate crime is likely to be far greater

than for almost all forms of conventional crime.

Environmental crime

Environment agency

Between 2000 and 2007 the Environment Agency only prosecuted 99 industrial environmental offences (Whyte, 2008), although it was highly likely there was many more offences.

State crime

Eco Crime

Fraud

Rebovich and Kane(2002) estimated 37% of the US

population had been the victim of corporate theft or fraud.

Then the misselling of endowment mortgages in the 1990s resulted in possibly 5M cases (Consumers Association undated, Fooks, 2003) It has been estimated this could be worth a total of £130Bn (seen Whyte, 2004a).

Health and Safety violations

Pollution

Human rights abuses

Corporate Power

The role of relations of power

Obscuring corporate crime

Stopping the application of criminal law and damaging and harmful activities.

Being able to operate with the least possibility of being held to account

Corporate crime is not recognised

If it is not recognised it is not treated through the law

Or

If it is treated through the law it is not treated through the criminal law

Or

If it is treated through the criminal law it is

represented as distinct from ‘real’ crime.

Lobbying by the asbestos industry

Asbestos industry lobbying and influencing techniques Co-opting the medical community (Tweedale,

2000).

Suppressing problematic scientific knowledge Funding their own biased scientific knowledge Forming ‘independent’ lobbying groups (Tweedale,

2000). Routine cover-ups Manipulation of data Lying to workers and regulators Using the favourable scientific discourses that

presumed in favour of official scientific technical knowledge over (often

superior) local knowledge.

There are 3 Aspects of corporate regulation and power

· The level of enforcement is governed by the general economic, political and social discourses (Tombs. 2004).

· These create a ‘common sense’ view of regulations

Corporate law is enforced informally rather than

formal enforcement of prosecution, regulation seeks consensus, and avoidance of

conflict and compliance are prioritised (Slapper and Tombs, 1999; Tombs, 2004).

Local

The UK 1200 to 1500 work related fatal injuries each year but only 80-90 prosecutions

(Tombs and Whyte, 2008).

50,000 deaths due to industrial disease each year in the UK

(O’Neil et al., 2007)

Global

The International Labour Organisation (ILO) estimated

2.2M people die each year because of industrial

related injury or disease. (3.9% of all deaths per annum).

270M occupational injuries

160M work related injuries

(ILO, 2005).

Child Labour

Child Labour

Forced work in mines

In the Sahel region of Africa 200K children are

working in gold and mineral mines. Agricultural labour 132M children under 15 work in agriculture exposed to

pesticides, heavy machinery, machetes and axes

Breaking labour law standards

Poverty

Discrimination

Human Rights abuses

Failure to enforce laws that protect people from harm.

Violencce against childreen

Torture

Corruption

Child Sodiers

Child soldiers

300K children under 15 are in armies including

government armies. At least 13 countries children are recruited as child soldiers or as ‘army wives’.

Child Prisoners

In the USA in 2004 more than 7000 juveniles were

held in adult jails.

2000 have been sentenced to life without parole.

(Muncie, 2009)

Climate Change

Poor nations are more affected by climate change than developed nations, yet developed countries are causing climate change. Bangladesh carbon output per capita 172Kg USA 21 Tons