Week 4 & 5

In the European - American datos históricos the following was found:
- harder event pairs (1 year apart) were ordered correctly less often than easier pairs (10 years apart).
- if the more recent events were American, the error rate was 36% as opposed to 47% when the more recent events were European.
- estos datos se encuentran en diferentes memory repositories.
- muchas veces los contemporary events tienen una conexión existente con la recency del evento y la recency de la memoria. Como este tipo de eventos los estudiamos a través de las noticias, periódicos, etc. es probable que se vinieran a la mente de los participantes mucho más rápido. También pueden ser cued relacionándolos con una autobiographical memory.

An inexact, but unbiased, memory for the date of an event can be modeled by a distribution of values around the true date, from which the estimator samples at random.

Almost all respondents believed American history was younger than 3 centuries.

Cuando no estamos seguros de cuándo sucedió un evento, utilizamos estrategias para calcularlo. Un ejemplo es, selecting a probable range of times y con eso adivinamos que el evento sucedió al principio.

Qué son las personal event memories?
Memorias de nuestro pasado personal que pinpointed un evento que pasó en un momento y lugar particular. Incluye recuerdos únicos relacionadas con la memoria específica, normalmente los recordamos cuando los asociamos con algo sensorial como imágenes o sentimientos.

Qué hace un trauma normalmente?
Continuamente ejerce una influencia específica y constante en ciertas actitudes o comportamientos.

Normalmente la recuperación de un trauma aparece en tres etapas
1.) Preserving future safety.
2.) Recovery. Remembrance and mouring (recuerdo y duelo), and the healing mechanism is memory sharing.
3.) Reconnection and development of a changed identity.

Los recuerdos son static.

Algunas lecciones encapsuladas en recuerdos vívidas de episodios particulares las experimentamos frecuentemente en la vida diaria.

Otra función de los recuerdos es que nos ayudan a nuestro future well-being porque son recordatorios de lo que vale la pena perseguir y lo que debemos evitar. Esto por experiencias previas.

Adultos mayores que están envejeciendo exitosamente mostraron más instrumental e integrative reminiscence pero no más narrative reminiscence.

En el experimento las narratives de las mujeres contenían un mayor número de recuerdos específicos que las de los hombres. Las mujeres también tuvieron un score más alto en identidad y problem-solving factors.

El tipo de processing que le damos a un estímulo no influencia en lo absoluto al later recall y al reconocimiento de ese estímulo.
Diferentes tipos de processing nos llevan al mismo memory performance.

Los resultados del experimento de Lotus, Greene and Smith:
Los sujetos que juzgaron el porcentaje del cielo hicieron twice as many errors as subjects who were given the intention to learn. Those who contemplated the meaning of life made at lest as few errors as subject who intended to learn.

Qué es la episodic memory?
The capacity to recollect specific events.
- allows you to access specific memories located at a particular point in time.
- such event might then accumulate and consolidate to form the basis of semantic memory.

Cuáles son los 3 pasos que necesitamos para recordar eventos de la episodic memory?
1.) A system that allows you to encode that particular experience in a way that will distinguish it from others.
2.) Requires a method of storing that event in a durable form.
3.) Requires a method of searching the system and retrieving that particular memory.

The Bartlett approach
Bartlett chose to study the recall of complex material, rather than studying the accumulation of information like Ebbinghaus.
El experimento que hizo era leer una historia y después ver lo que podían recall.
Los resultados:
- the remembered story was always shorter, more coherent, and tended to fit in more closely with the participant's own viewpoint than the original story.
- schema, a long-term structured representation of knowledge that was used by the rememberer to make sense of new material and subsequently store and recall it.
- development of schemas, determine the way in which material is encoded, stored and subsequently recalled.

El experimento hecho por Carmichael, Hogan and Walter:
- presented the visual stimuli shown at the centre for subsequent recall.
- participants were later asked to draw the stimuli from memory, their drawings were strongly influenced by the label they had been given.
- suggesting that the bias occurred at retrieval rather than encoding; the appropriate information was stored but the difficult task of recalling by drawing led to an undue influence of the verbal labels.

Meaning and memory
- syllables rated as more meaningful are easier to recall.
- lists of words that were highly associated with each other were easier to recall than lists with few interned associations.
- the extent to which a word evoked an image were a very powerful predictor of how well it would be remembered.

Qué es la dual-coding hypothesis?
- highly imageable word are easy to learn because they can be encoded both visually and verbally.
- two routes of retrieval for imageable words - visual and verbal.

Qué es la Cloze technique y qué mide?
- people are presented with a passage from which every fifth word has been deleted. Their task is to guess the missing words.
- strong relationships exist between the words in a sentence but not between the words in a list.
- redundancy as measured by the Cloze technique is a reasonably good predictor of both the judged readability of text and of its memorability.
- The more redundant and predictable a piece of prose, the easier it is to recall.

Why does meaning facilitate long-term learning?
- one possibility - storage in STM relies on a phonological code, whereas LTM is semantically based.

Levels of processing - Craik & Lockhart
- the way in which material is processed determines its durability in LTM. Information is taken in and processed to varying depths.
- the greater the depth of processing, the better the subsequent memory.
- for positive items, the word to be recalled was integrated more closely with the bonding question, particularly in the semantic condition.
- if a sentence made sense when linked with the target words, remembering the sentence would help remind you of the target.
- no evidence that slower processing led to enhanced recognition.
- deeper and more elaborate processing leads to better memory.
- does not depend on whether the participants know that recall will be required, performance depends only on what processing task is performed.

Depth of processing = the more deeply an item is processed, the better will be its retention.
2 problems:
1.) measuring the depth of processing.
2.) situations in which deeper processing does not always lead to better performance.

Transfer-appropriate processing (TAP) = retention is best when the mode of encoding and mode of retrieval are the same.
- for a test to reveal prior learning, the processing requirements of the test should match the processing conditions at encoding.

Semantic coding is advantageous because it allows a richer and more elaborate code, which in turn becomes more readily retrievable.
- very clear advantage to words embedded (incrustadas) in the semantically richer sentences.

The important thing is not the desire to remember, but the way in which you process the material.
What is important is what you do with the material, not what your purpose is.

Why does semantic coding help?
- deeper processing emphasized the use of a semantic code, which is potentially much richer than a code representing the sound or printed appearance of a word.

Qué es la subjective organization?
A strategy whereby a learner attempts to organize unstructured material so as to enhance learning.
- as people gradually learned the list, they tended to produce words in clusters.
- another effective way of organizing material is a hierarchical structure.
- trying to link the various words into a coherent story.

Aunque a veces nuestros recuerdos están perfectamente guardados, tenemos problemas para recuperarlos (retrieval).
The tip-of-the-tongue state = an extreme form of pause, where the word takes a noticeable time to come out.
- the feeling that you know something is often a good indication that you do.
- damage to the prefrontal cortex hinders recall even for very well leaned information from across our lifespans.

- Successful access often relies upon retrieval mechanisms.
- Our memory store contains more information than we can access at any given moment.

Qué es retrieval y cómo funciona?
Retrieval = process of recovering a target memory based on one or more cues, subsequently bringing that target into awareness.
- during retrieval we are usually seeking a particular memory = target memory or target trace.
- when we search for a target memory = specification.
- without specification there is nothing for your memory to work with.
- snippets (fragmentos) of information that allow you to access a memory are known as retrieval cues, or simply cues.
- traces in memory are believed to be linked up to one another by connections that are usually called associations or links.

Retrieval = a progression from one or more cues to a target memory, via associative connections.

Activation level = variable internal state of a memory trace that contributes to its accessibility at a given point.
- one idea is that retrieval occurs by a process called spreading activation - each memory has an internal state of tis own, reflecting how "excited" or "active" it is,
- activation levels vary. Higher levels of activation = greater accessibility.
- if the target accumulates enough activation form the cue, it will be retrieved.

Pattern completion = process by which spreading activation from a set of cues leads to the reinstatement (reintegración) of a memory's features.
Incidental retrieval = where we are spontaneously reminded of a past experience.
Cue-specification = careful specification of what we are trying to remember.
Interference resolution processes = help to overcome interference from competing memories brought to mind instead of the target.
Post-Retreival monitoring = decision of whether what we have retrieved is what we are seeking.

Dividiendo la atención de una persona puede reducir la retrieval, aunque la segunda task no este relacionada con lo que estamos buscando.
A veces la retrieval puede funcionar con poca atención, pero obviamente afecta el encoding y la depth con lo que lo procesamos.

Encoding specify principle = the more similar the cues available at retrieval are to the conditions present at encoding, the more effective the cues will be.
Retrieval can fail is cues are relevant but weak.

Wagner asociado con retrieval!

If a memory is weakly encoded, even a good cue may be insufficient to trigger retrieval.
Retrieval often improves when more relevant cues are added.
Es importante que los items realled sean biased towards things relevant to their respective perspectives.

Retrieval mode = cognitive set, or frame of mind, that orients a person towards the act of retrieval, ensuring that stimuli are interpreted as retrieval.
- we have to be in the right frame of mind or retrieval mode to recollect our past.

Context cues = the circumstances under which a stimulus has even encoded.
- memory retrieval is often influenced by context, sometimes intentionally, other times not.
- The concept of context is no limited to patio-temporal context, it also includes:
mood context.
emotional state.
physiological context.
cognitive context.

Direct/explicit memory tests = ask people to retrieve their past.

Cryptomnesia = a person believes they are creating something new, but is recalling a similar work that they have encountered.

Reconstructive memory = an active and inferential process of retrieval whereby gaps in memory are filled-in based on prior experience, logic and goals.

Retrieval failure is not a form of forgetting.

Hyperthymestic syndrome = uncontrollable remembering.

Forgetting does not increases as time progresses.

Ebbinghaus
Forgetting curve/retention function = relationship between memory and time.
- forgetting was extremely rapid at first (en la primera hora), but it gradually slowed down over time (1 mes).
- overall retention is determined by the level of initial learning,

Recall is generally easier than recognition.

Si aprendes algo bien, es más difícil olvidarlo.
Jot's Law = if two memories are equally strong at a given time, then the older of the two will be more durable and forgotten less rapidly.

Reconsolidation = the idea that memories must destabilize after reactivations.
- personal memories if retrieved periodically, grow resistant to forgetting.
- if recollections are incomplete or inaccurate due to reconstructive inferences, what we remember may not be what originally happened.

Trace decay = idea that memories get weaker over time.
- memories are not permanent and decay must exist.
Interference = phenomenon in which the retrieval of a memory can be disrupted by the presence of related traces in memory.

Infantile amnesia = tendency for older children and adults to hace few autobiographical memories from the early years of life.

As time progresses, changes in context become grater, on average because the world changes and we change.
Contextual fluctuation = gradual and persistent drift in incidental context over time, such that distant memories deviate from the current context more so than newer memories, thereby diminishing the former's potency as a retrieval cue for older memories.
- Over time, experiences accumulate. Adding new memories affects how easily we find things already stored.

We can easily remember experiences for a long time if they are unique.

Interference arises whenever the cue used to access a target, becomes associated to additional memories.
Competition assumption = when a cue is linked to multiple items, those items compete with the target for access to awareness.
Cue-overload principle = tendency for recall success to decrease as the number of to-be-remembered items associated to a cue increases.

Part-set cuing impairments = when presenting part of a set of items, hinders (obstaculiza) your ability to recall the remaining items in the set.

Collaborative inhibition (block or suppress) = when people get together to remember material that they each learned, they remember less when recalling the information as a group, than they do then each person recalls information separately and their results are combined in a common score.
Tal vez tiene que ver con cómo es el encoding y el recall. Si lo aprendiste sólo es más fácil que lo recuerdes sólo.
O porque if a group of members are generating lots of items while you are listening, the interference this causes may disrupt your retrieval -- part-set cuing.

Retrieval-induced forgetting = retrieval can harm recall of other memories or facts related to the retrieved item.
Retrieval practice paradigm = procedure used to study retrieval-induced forgetting.