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What are the 3 themes seen in the evolution of gas exchange?
What would happen if gas exchange systems did not evolve?
How many alveoli are there in each lung?
How wide are alveoli?
What is the respiratory surface area?
What separates air from the blood?
How much blood is in the pulmonary capillaries?
What causes the alveoli and the lungs to tend to collapse?
What is the distribution of recoil force?
How are the lungs kept inflated?
What generates the lower amount of pressure in the intrapleural spaces?
How much of a pressure change is required to move air in and out of lungs?
What is the max expiratory effort?
What is the max inspiratory effort?
How does quiet breathing work?
What happens during heavy breathing?
What are phospholipid surfactants?
How much pressure does it take to inflate lungs without surfactant?
What is Respiratory Distress Syndrome? (RDS)
What is Boyle's Law?
What determines respiration rates under normal circumstances?
Where are gas concentration receptors located?
Respiration is adjusted to maintain PCO2 levels at what pressure?
What is hypocapnia?
What is tidal volume?
Inspiratory reserve volume
Expiratory reserve volume
Residual volume
Total lung capacity
Vital capacity
Functional residual capacity
Inspiratory capacity
How much O2 do we use and CO2 do we produce per minute?
Where do local decreases in O2 or pH cause local vasoconstriction? Wha? What is the significance of this?
How much more soluble is CO2 that O2 in water?
How is O2 transported?
What is our respiratory pigment?
How much does hemoglobin increase the O2 carrying capacity of our blood?
Which is a brighter red: oxy- or deoxy-hemoglobin?
What effect does packaging hemoglobin inside RBCs have on osmotic pressure?
How is the Antarctic Icefish able to survive without respiratory pigment?
Describe vertebrate hemoglobin
Difference between HbA, HbF, and HbS
What is sickle cell anemia?
How much higher is hemoglobin's affinity for CO than for O2?
What are the three means of CO2 transport in the blood?
What is carbonic anhydrase?
Where does CO2 attach to hemoglobin?
What is the O2 pressure at sea level?
What is the pressure of O2 in the alveoli? Why?
Is the O2 partial pressure higher in tissures during rest or during exercise?
What is the Bohr effect?
What is normal arterial pH?
What is the pH of blood during rest after it passes through the capillaries?
What is the pH in muscle with exercise?
How much does the temperature of active muscles change?
What is subunit cooperativity?
What is the T (taut) state?
What is the R (relaxed) state?
How does O2 binding/unloading in hemoglobin affect CO2 affinity?
What is the Haldane Effect?
What is 2, 3 BPG?
What can cause a lowered affinity for O2 in hemoglobin?
Why do smokers not load as much O2?
What happens to 2,3 BPG levels during pregnancy? What does this cause?
What happens to the hemoglobin/O2 saturation graph in sickle-cell anemia?
What is the inspiratory region?
What is the expiratory region?
What is the pneumotaxic center?
What is the apneustic center?
What is the Hering-Breuer Reflex?
What is the goal of respiration?
How does the body maintain proper concentrations of O2, CO2, and H+?
Which chemoreceptors respond most to CO2 and H+?
What chemoreceptors respond the most to low levels of O2?
What is the normal ventilation rate?
When PO2 decreases by 1/2, how much does ventilation increase?
How does the ventilation rate change with a drop in pH from 7.4 to 7.0?
What is the effect on ventilation of increasing the pressure of CO2 by 50%
What is the "Braking Effect"?
Why does low CO2 and H+ cause dramatic inhibition of ventilation?
At most O2 pressures, is hemoglobin saturated or unsaturated with O2
What provides the strongest stimulus to breathe?
What is the functional unit of the kidney?
How many nephrons are there per kidney?
What are the two types of nephrons?
How thick are the walls of the nephron?
What is the glomerulus?
What is the vasa recta?
What is the osmotic gradient from the cortex to the medulla?
What determines how concentrated urine can be?
What can urine osmolarity be in some desert animals?
What are the three steps of urine formation?
What detects dehydration?
What drives glomerular filtration?
What gets filtered into Bowman's Capsule?
What are the pressures like around Bowman's Capsule? (picture)
What does fenestrated mean?
What are podocytes?
What are filtration slits?
What percentage of water and solutes passing through the glomerulus is filtered?
How many milliliters of water/solutes pass through the glomerulus per minute?
What things are too large to be filtered through the glomerulus?
How much of water/salts is reabsorbed before the kidney produces final urine?
How does reabsorption occur?
What compounds are 100% reabsorbed in the kidney?
How are 2/3 of filtered Na+ reabsorbed?
What is the driving force for most that happens in the proximal convoluted tubule?
How are filtered proteins reabsorbed?
How much of total filtrate is reabsorbed on the PCT?
Drugs, toxins, and H+ can be secreted in the PCT. How?
What are the functions of the Descending Loop of Henle?
What are the permeabilities in the Descending Loop of Henle?
What controls Aq2?
What are the functions of the Ascending Loop of Henle?
What are the permeabilities in the Ascending Loop of Henle?
What is the Diluting Segment?
What is the osmolarity of pre-urine at the end of the Diluting Segment?
What do the actions of the Distal Convoluted Tubule and the Cortical Collecting Duct depend on?
Where does aldosterone stimulate Na+ reabsorption and K+ secretion?
When are the DCT and CCT permeable?
What can be secreted into urine and reabsorbed from pre-urine?
What happens if pre-urine is too acidic?Too basic?
What is the function of the medullary CD?
What happens when ADH is present?
How does ETOH dehydrate?
When does the gradient reach 1200 mOsm?
What are the two mechanisms that produce the up to 900 mOsm gradient/
How does facilitated transport of urea out of the medullary CD create part of the gradient?
How is the glomerular filtration rate controlled?
What is myogenic autoregulation?
What is the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus?
What is the macula densa?
Why does low [Na+] cause the macula densa to release NO to dilate the afferent arteriole?
What are the granular cells?
What is RAAS?
What is renin?
How do you make Angiotensin II?
What does angiotensin II do?
How do ACE inhibitors work?
What are the three natriuretic peptides? Where are they produced?
What do natriuretic peptides do? When are they released?
Why are BNP levels used to assess heart failure?
What are diuretics?
What are the #1 and #2 causers of nephropathy? (kidney disease)
What does nephropathy cause?
What causes nephropathy?
How long is the tube of the digestive tract?
What is the primary method of chemical digestion?
What does saliva contain?
How does the autonomic nervous system affect saliva release?
What is chyme?
What produces gastric secretions?
What does the stomach do?
What are mucous neck cells?
What are chief cells?
What does pepsinogen do?
What are parietal cells?
How strong is the proton pump of parietal cells?
What is the function of [HCl] in the stomach?
What are G cells?
What is gastrin?
How does gastrin stimulate the release of HCl?
How do Zantac and Pepcid work?
What effect does the parasympathetic have on parietal cells and ECLs?
What can the stomach absorb?
How often is the lining of the stomach replaced?
What is the intrinsic factor?
What is pernicious anemia?
Where does most digestion occur?
How long is the small intestine? How big is the absorptive area?
Describe the surface of the inside of the small intestine
What are microvilli?
What part of the small intestine functions in reabsorption of nutrients? Fats?
How long does it take for chyme to move through the small intestine?
Where is the pancreas?
What enzymes are secreted by the pancreas?
Why are pancreatic enzymes produced and secreted in the inactive form?
What is acute pancreatitis?
What is the pH in the small intestine?
Digested carbohydrates and proteins are absorbed by capillaries in the small intestine villi. Where do they go next?
What does the liver do?
What is the first pass effect? How do you avoid it?
What are prodrugs?
What are bile acids?
What happens to the gall bladder after meals?
What does emulsification do?
What are micelles?
What happens to the fatty acids and monoglycerides produced by lipase?
What are chylomicrons?
Why is plasma taken after meals often cloudy?
How long is the large intestine (colon)?
How much water does the large intestine absorb?
What does the large intestine absorb?
Why is the large intestine slow-moving?
How many species of bacteria are there in the large intestine?
How much of the mass of feces is of bacterial origin?
What is flatus?
Why do beans give you gas?
What do bacteria in the large intestine produce from fiber?
