Quiz
Conservation Challenges
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1The challenges of scale: the scale at which do thing
- the most obvious = space and [blank_start]time[blank_end], somethings are bigger than others, some things take longer than others
also need to consider, ecological scale
- about the level at which we look at something in ecology: do we watch a single wolf, the whole [blank_start]pack[blank_end], the pack plus 1 prey item, the pack in the landscape
- ecological scale is important
figure = trophic system
- each time you move up a level, you have gone up 1 trophic level
- ecological scale: can study 1 trophic level or look at all the tropic level
The ecological scale from community level can be reduced all the way down to [blank_start]DNA[blank_end]
- can look at single scale or any combination of these ecological scales
- the scale you choose, depends on your question you are trying to answer
- in terms of conservation the question is likely to be how can we predict biodiversity responses to environmental change?
- Atime
- Bpack
- CDNA
2Scales: spatial scale
- a very large spatial scale = distribution of [blank_start]biomes[blank_end]
- the distribution of biomes is mostly determined by [blank_start]temperature[blank_end] and precipitation but not the absolute values: combination of the 2
- figure shows categories of forests, biomes are often determined by the [blank_start]forest[blank_end] types that occur there
- on the x axis = average temperature, y axis = [blank_start]precipitation[blank_end]
can see that at high temperatures you can have a [blank_start]high[blank_end] diversity of forest types occurring depending on the precipitation
- the 2 variables interact a lot
- environment space can be projected back onto geographic space and then can identify the parts of the world in which the combination of environmental variables occur
right = projecting the environmental variables back onto space, and linking these variables to [blank_start]spatial[blank_end] scale
- Abiomes
- Btemperature
- Cforest
- Dprecipitation
- Ehigh
- Fspatial
3Smaller spatial scales
- at smaller spatial scale you can distinguish a lot [blank_start]more[blank_end] detail in regards to the biomes, for example can look at specific vegetation types: figure shows different flora across altitude, may be effects of topography, soil etc
at the regional scale, other drivers become more important for the distribution of vegetation types (within the constraints of the global scale drivers): topography, soil attributes and disturbance
The properties of an ecosystem are not just defined by the ecosystem itself
- can be defined by what is [blank_start]next[blank_end] to the ecosystem
- ecosystem [blank_start]boundaries[blank_end] can be ecosystems in their own right
- think of map of biomes, there are not actually hard lines on the ground > at an ecosystem boundary you might have very gradual or sharp change between ecosystems
- the boundary can be instant or occur over 100s of meters
- Amore
- Bnext
- Cboundaries
4spatial scales and ecosystem boundaries
- at landscape scales and below, further drivers become important in shaping distinct ecosystems
- for example, in dry ecosystems you can get [blank_start]gallery[blank_end] forests
- gallery forests are restricted/form along [blank_start]river[blank_end] banks
- e.g. the Gallery forests in [blank_start]San[blank_end] Pedro River valley
- the gallery forests in the San [blank_start]pedro[blank_end] river valley, the ecosystem boundary is very sharp = goes from wooded area into grassland pretty instantly
BUT in other areas e.g. the [blank_start]Arabuko[blank_end] Sokoke forest, east coast [blank_start]kenya[blank_end]
- the Arabuko [blank_start]Sokoke[blank_end] forest, east coast kenya ecosystem boundary is more [blank_start]gradual[blank_end]: there is a transition in the type of trees
- both habitats look very similar but actually different, differences driven by differences in [blank_start]soil[blank_end] type
- Agallery
- Briver
- CSan
- Dpedro
- EArabuko
- Fkenya
- GSokoke
- Hsoil
- Igradual
5When we discuss spatial scales there are 2 key characteristics
1. [blank_start]extent[blank_end] = extent is the overall [blank_start]area[blank_end] encompassed by a study
2. [blank_start]grain[blank_end] = grain is the size of the individual unit of observation
We [blank_start]cannot[blank_end] detect patterns below the grain, research gained at small spatial scales are often [blank_start]not[blank_end] representative of larger areas, and large area averages may be meaningless at smaller scales
- Aextent
- Barea
- Cgrain
- Dcannot
- Enot
6Her slide (less confusing): spatial scale and ecological processes
- [blank_start]general[blank_end] circulation [blank_start]models[blank_end] (GCMs) simulate the response of the global climate system to rising [blank_start]green[blank_end] house gas concentrations
- general [blank_start]circulation[blank_end] models depict climate using a 3D grid over the globe, typically with a horizontal resolution of 250-600km
- represent physical processes in the atmosphere, ocean, cryosphere and land surface
BUT because of the resolution of general circulation models (100s of kilometers)
- they miss fine [blank_start]details[blank_end] on vegetation and feedbacks with climate
- many physical processes, such as those related to clouds, also occur at smaller scales and cannot be properly modelled (averaged over larger scales)
- Ageneral
- Bmodels
- Cgreen
- Dcirculation
- Edetails
7A lot of this finer scale detail can be very important, particularly in terms of climate change
- have [blank_start]climate[blank_end] vegetation [blank_start]feedback[blank_end]
- climate [blank_start]vegetation[blank_end] feedback is where the climate effects [blank_start]vegetation[blank_end], which in turn can effect the [blank_start]climate[blank_end]
- very very hard to model
- these finer details are important for predicting local climate change and its impacts on ecological processes
- Aclimate
- Bfeedback
- Cvegetation
- Dvegetation
- Eclimate
8Another example of issues of spatial scale comes from crop growth models
- these [blank_start]crop[blank_end] growth [blank_start]models[blank_end] can be used to visualise the potential impacts of [blank_start]climate[blank_end] change on food security
- future climate change is predicted to affect crop [blank_start]yield[blank_end] particularly in vulnerable areas
- the [blank_start]crop[blank_end] growth [blank_start]models[blank_end] rely on climate predictors, but the predictor can be of limited capacity, because we know there are ecological processes going on at a much finer scale than the GCMs work with
- ecological processes can be things like pollination, pests, pest control actions > that will impact crop growth but cannot be captured in these big [blank_start]GCM[blank_end] models
-> Critical: the development of methods that will preserve information across scales or quantify the loss of information with changing scales- Acrop
- Bmodels
- Cclimate
- Dyield
- Ecrop
- Fmodels
- GGCM
9[blank_start]Temporal[blank_end] scales
- to understand anything in ecology we need to know the appropriate [blank_start]time[blank_end] scale
- what appears as a pattern on 1 temporal scale can become [blank_start]noise[blank_end] on another
- patterns apparent at 1 scale can collapse to noise when viewed from other scales
- the figure shows the pattern in daily temperature becomes noise over a year and so one
while small scale daily fluctuations are important for many species, these patterns become noise at [blank_start]big[blank_end]ger temporal scales
- ATemporal
- Btime
- Cnoise
- Dbig
10Temporal scale and ecological processes
- ecological boundaries can change over time
- inter-annual water levels in lake [blank_start]Paradise[blank_end] in Kenya: sees a large shift
- the water levels in [blank_start]lake[blank_end] Paradise in [blank_start]Kenya[blank_end] shows a massive change across years
can also have a shift in the boundary between forests and river, depending on wet or [blank_start]dry[blank_end] season
- every wet season the [blank_start]Amazon[blank_end] floods moving the river boundary further inland
This actually happens over a big spatial scale, so have 1000s of km habitat called Varzea
- [blank_start]varzea[blank_end] = the boundary habitat between the river and the forest
- the change within the year due to the amazon river flooding in the wet season
- AParadise
- Blake
- CKenya
- Ddry
- EAmazon
- Fvarzea
11Temporal scale and ecological processes
- if we think about wildebeest [blank_start]migrations[blank_end]
- the wildebeest migrate seasonally to form spatial variations in food, quality, quantity and competition
- these migration patterns are following [blank_start]rainfall[blank_end] (rainfall changes over space and time)
the wildebeest migrations set the pace for interactions between species at the same [blank_start]trophic[blank_end] level (competing with out species for grazing) but also interactions for species at [blank_start]different[blank_end] trophic levels
- can expect predators to follow their prey
- Amigrations
- Brainfall
- Cdifferent
- Dtrophic
12Scale has strong implications for the sampling design of our ecological studies: it impacts our interpretation of [blank_start]results[blank_end] and on understanding of the links between patterns and processes operating at different rates
- scale profoundly influences our ability to biodiversity responses to change- Aresults
13[blank_start]Climate[blank_end] change (CC)
- lot of evidence of how species are responding to climate change
- in UK there has been an expansion [blank_start]north[blank_end]wards of species distributions > map shows change in small Skipper [blank_start]butterfly[blank_end] distribution across UK, its become warmer
[blank_start]Hickling[blank_end] et al. 2006
- Hickling et al. looked across many more taxonomic groups across the UK
- [blank_start]Hickling[blank_end] found almost across all taxonomic groups, there was a significant [blank_start]north[blank_end]ward shift in distribution
- AClimate
- Bnorth
- Cbutterfly
- DHickling
- EHickling
- Fnorth
14Climate change
- species are moving towards the pole: in the northern hemisphere we expect species to move [blank_start]north[blank_end], southern hemisphere = south
- but not this simple > shown by [blank_start]VanDerWal[blank_end] et al. 2012
VanDerWal et al. [blank_start]2012[blank_end] showed
- looked at changes in species distribution in Australia in response to [blank_start]climate[blank_end] change
- [blank_start]VanDerWal[blank_end] found that species were not consistently moving polewards, they were moving in lots of [blank_start]different[blank_end] directions depending on the ecosystem the species was found in
- VanDerWal found that the although the general pattern is to move polewards, what we see on the ground is much [blank_start]more[blank_end] complex in terms of species distribution shifts
- Anorth
- BVanDerWal
- C2012
- Dclimate
- EVanDerWal
- Fdifferent
- Gmore
15[blank_start]VanDerWal[blank_end] et al. 2012 found that the although the general pattern is to move polewards, what we see on the ground is much more complex in terms of species distribution shifts > this is a major issue for conservation
- bcos. when species shift their distributions in response to [blank_start]climate[blank_end] change, they are expected and predicted to move outside the hard boundaries of [blank_start]protected[blank_end] areas, so lose their protection
- adding new protected [blank_start]areas[blank_end] would address this issue > for this to work, we need to know how the climate is change, how species are responding and where they are predicted to go under future climate change
- AVanDerWal
- Bclimate
- Cprotected
- Dareas
16In 2002, [blank_start]Hannah[blank_end] et al. developed a new framework for integrating biogeography, conservational biological and on the ground conservation management
- Hannah et al. produced the [blank_start]climate[blank_end] change - [blank_start]integration[blank_end] conservation [blank_start]strategies[blank_end]
- the climate [blank_start]change[blank_end]- integration [blank_start]conservation[blank_end] strategies by Hannah et al. suggests we need to:
1. carry out regional modelling of biodiversity response to climate change > understand how biodiversity is responding to [blank_start]climate[blank_end] change in terms of distributional shifts
2. then need to uses these regional models to predict where new [blank_start]protected[blank_end] areas should go: systematic selection of protected areas with regard to climate change
- predict where species will move to under future climate change
3. we need to management biodiversity across regional landscapes (not just in protected areas), including core [blank_start]protected[blank_end] areas and surrounding matrix
- so that species can move between protected areas as the climate changes and their ranges start to shift
4. We need mechanisms to support regional coordination of management (across international [blank_start]borders[blank_end]; across park/non-park areas)
5. provision of resources from countries with the [blank_start]greatest[blank_end] resources and the greatest role in generating climate change (UK, US, europe) to countries in which climate change and biodiversity impacts are the [blank_start]high[blank_end]est
Hannah et al. 2002- AHannah
- Bclimate
- Cintegration
- Dstrategies
- Echange
- Fconservation
- Gclimate
- Hprotected
- Iprotected
- Jborders
- Kgreatest
- Lhigh
17Climate change: some examples
- predicting the consequences of climate change is very hard
- future climate change effects include further increases of [blank_start]temperature[blank_end], further drying in some regions and increases in frequency and severity of droughts and [blank_start]heat[blank_end]waves
- forests = forests are important [blank_start]carbon[blank_end] stores, and play an important role in the carbon cycle
The figure shows the potential environmental limits to vegetation net [blank_start]primary[blank_end] productivity
- the circles = documented forest mortality due to drought stress and high [blank_start]temperature[blank_end]
- we are already seeing the effects of climate change in [blank_start]forests[blank_end] across the world
- Atemperature
- Bheat
- Ccarbon
- Dprimary
- Etemperature
- Fforests
18Example: the [blank_start]amazon[blank_end]
- there was a mega-[blank_start]drought[blank_end] in the amazon in 2005 causing wide spread damage and death of trees
- more than 700,000 square kilometers affected
- this [blank_start]mega[blank_end]-drought caused widespread changes to the canopy, that were actually detectable from satellite: branch die off and tree fall
- Adrought
- Bamazon
- Cmega
19Climate vegetation feedbacks
- changes in forest can in turn effect changes in local and global climate, this is because forests alters [blank_start]biogeochemistry[blank_end]
1. [blank_start]forests[blank_end] affect biogeochemistry > forests stores 4[blank_start]5[blank_end]% of terrestrial carbon, so losing forests we lose that carbon store
> forests can also take in big amounts of carbon every years, forests can absorb [blank_start]3[blank_end]3% of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel and land use
2. forests biogeophysics >
= forests have lower surface [blank_start]albedo[blank_end] compared to pastures > albedo is about reflection of sunlight, forests absorb more sunlight than pastures, the albedo effect relates to climate change for the more sunlight that is absorbed, the [blank_start]less[blank_end] goes back into the atmosphere, so less impact on climate change
= forests have a greater [blank_start]evapotranspiration[blank_end], evapotranspiration cools the climate through feedbacks with clouds and precipitation
SO: large scale conversion of forests to pastures creates a warmer, drier climate- Abiogeochemistry
- Bforests
- C5
- D3
- Ealbedo
- Fless
- Gevapotranspiration
20Modelling [blank_start]crop[blank_end] production under climate change
- can be informative at a large scale
- these predictions for [blank_start]2050[blank_end], in general yield is meant to increased in north europe and north [blank_start]america[blank_end]
- these predictions for 2050, are meant to [blank_start]decrease[blank_end] across Africa and south america > huge implications for food security globally
- Acrop
- B2050
- Camerica
- Ddecrease
21Climate change management solutions
- one solution that has been implemented is called REDD = [blank_start]reducing[blank_end] emissions from [blank_start]deforestation[blank_end] and forest [blank_start]degradation[blank_end]
- UN program: reducing [blank_start]emissions[blank_end] from deforestation and [blank_start]forest[blank_end] degradation
- first implemented was called REDD, now REDD+
The more you reduce your emissions the more you get [blank_start]paid[blank_end]
- the program is designed to discourage deforestation and encourage reforestation
- Areducing
- Bdeforestation
- Cdegradation
- Demissions
- Eforest
- Fpaid
22Human population growth (the final challenge)
- in 2001 [blank_start]Tilman[blank_end] predicted that the global population was at 6 [blank_start]billion[blank_end]
- Tilman predicted that the global human population would increase to 7.5 billion by [blank_start]2020[blank_end]
- [blank_start]Tilman[blank_end] predicted: 9 billion by 2050
Update of these predictions: from Gerland et al.
- [blank_start]Gerland[blank_end] predicts by 2100 the population will be 11 billion
Right hand figure
- how the population growth is divided by continent: [blank_start]Africa[blank_end] will show a massive increase and overall drive the global growth rate
- ATilman
- Bbillion
- C2020
- DTilman
- EGerland
- FAfrica
23And demands on resources are increasing too
- human population [blank_start]size[blank_end] and per [blank_start]capita[blank_end] consumption are the 2 greatest drivers of global environmental change
- increase in land demand
- also changes in [blank_start]per[blank_end] capita [blank_start]consumption[blank_end]: the wealthier a nation becomes the [blank_start]more[blank_end] each of its citizens consume, the greater the per capita resource demands of the country
LEFT: [blank_start]Tilman[blank_end] et al. 2001
- showed an continuous increase in land use for land and pastures over the past 50 years
RIGHT: [blank_start]Godfray[blank_end] et al. 2010
- Godfray et al. showed the massive increase in farming/production of varying grains and livestock
- Acapita
- Bsize
- Cconsumption
- Dper
- Emore
- FTilman
- GGodfray
24How does [blank_start]poverty[blank_end] affect the environment?
- what is the relationship between the wealth of a nation and environmental degradation
- figure from [blank_start]Ewers[blank_end] et al. 2006
- Ewers et al. shows national forage cover on x axis and rate of forest change of the y
- Ewers et al. have split countries into low, [blank_start]middle[blank_end] and high income
Ewers have shown than high income countries have a negative slope meaning wealthy nations show the biggest relative increase in forest cover: high income families grow [blank_start]more[blank_end]
- poor countries have a positive slope = low income countries, cut forests down faster
so might conclude that poverty is [blank_start]bad[blank_end] for the environment
Trend in forest change (1990-2000) with forest cover in 103 nations :
Rich countries: a strong negative slope
Poor countries: a [blank_start]positive[blank_end] slope
Wealthy nations with little forest grow more
[blank_start]Low[blank_end] income nations with little forest cut it down faster
- Apoverty
- Bbad
- CEwers
- Dmiddle
- Emore
- Fpositive
- GLow
25so might conclude that poverty is bad for the environment, from Ewers study however IT IS MORE COMPLICATED THAN THAT
- back in 1992 the world bank that included this statement = "poverty is a major cause of environmental [blank_start]degradation[blank_end]"
- but our understanding has developed: by 1998 "demographic, cultural and institutional factors important variables in poverty - environmental degradational nexus"
not quite that simple: there are 6 broad relationships between poverty and environmental degradation
1. [blank_start]exogenous[blank_end] poverty causes environmental degradation > exogenous poverty means poverty caused by external factors e.g. british history of [blank_start]colonisation[blank_end], when we colonised other countries we took their resources and left them in a state of poverty, poverty was exogenous (it was out fault not theirs)
2. power, wealth and [blank_start]greed[blank_end] cause environmental degradation
3. institutional failure can be a primary cause of environmental degradation > effectively poor [blank_start]governments[blank_end]
4. market failure can be a primary cause of environmental degradation
5. environmental degradation causes [blank_start]poverty[blank_end] > other way around
6. [blank_start]endogenous[blank_end] poverty causes environmental degradation > endogenous poverty is the opposite of exogenous poverty- Adegradation
- Bexogenous
- Ccolonisation
- Dgreed
- Egovernments
- Fpoverty
- Gendogenous
26What is the relationship between wealth (instead of poverty) and environmental degradation?
- wealthier nations have very different diets > wealthy nations consume more calories and more [blank_start]meat[blank_end]
- conversion from crop to pasture is a major driver to [blank_start]habitat[blank_end] loss and species threat
- [blank_start]pasture[blank_end]s drives habitat loss
in the [blank_start]UK[blank_end] cannot sustain ourselves we import a lot of food from all across the world
- Ameat
- Bhabitat
- Cpasture
- DUK
27Importing food from around the world: Lenzen et al.
- [blank_start]Lenzen[blank_end] et al. looked at whether other countries were importers or exporters of [blank_start]biodiversity[blank_end] threats
- if you are a net [blank_start]importer[blank_end] of biodiversity threats then the imports that come into your country cause more [blank_start]environmental[blank_end] degradation abroad than the amount of degradation in your own country caused by your own production and exports, you are effectively exporting your environmental damage to out countries, so having a big negative effect on other countries
- [blank_start]exporters[blank_end] of biodiversity threats = the countries where their exports are causing more environmental degradation at home than any environmental degradation abroad from the resources they are bringing in
Lenzen et al. 2012
- results = the [blank_start]US[blank_end] is the top net importer of biodiversity [blank_start]threats[blank_end], the UK falls 5th on this
- the net [blank_start]exporter[blank_end]s of biodiversity threats = developing countries a lot in eastern Asia
- ALenzen
- Bbiodiversity
- Cimporter
- Denvironmental
- Eexporters
- Fthreats
- GUS
- Hexporter
28How can we manage increasing land demands?
- one hot topic = is land sharing vs. land [blank_start]sparing[blank_end]
- land [blank_start]sharing[blank_end] = conservation 'farming' at one end, at the other end vs. land sparing (separate protected areas from farms and intensify crop production, where biodiversity is separate from agriculture and [blank_start]human[blank_end] activity)
Land sparing = considers the landscape to be binary
- the land is either for agriculture or for biodiversity/conservation
- considers humans to be [blank_start]separate[blank_end] from nature
land [blank_start]sharing[blank_end] = considers land to be more continuous and heterogenous, considers humans to be [blank_start]part[blank_end] of nature
PICTURES TO SHOW
- Asparing
- Bsharing
- Chuman
- Dseparate
- Esharing
- Fpart
29land sparing vs. land [blank_start]sharing[blank_end]
- Asharing
30A lot of work being done:
Ecosystem Services for Poverty Alleviation - A [blank_start]UK[blank_end] led research programme that provides evidence & tools for [blank_start]decision[blank_end]-makers in [blank_start]developing[blank_end] countries to manage ecosystems sustainably and in a way that contributes to reducing poverty.
Natural Capital Project – A US led research programme to integrate the value nature provides to society into [blank_start]all[blank_end] major decisions to improve the well-being of all people and nature by motivating greater and more targeted natural capital investments.- AUK
- Bdecision
- Cdeveloping
- Dall
31take home messages
Ecological processes operate across spatial and [blank_start]temporal[blank_end] scales
Decisions need to be made across [blank_start]spatial[blank_end] and temporal scales
Ecosystems are dynamic, which needs to be reflected in these decisions, especially when considering [blank_start]climate[blank_end] change and land use change impacts
Accounting for people and resource needs is an important component of environmental management and needs to be seen in the context of climate [blank_start]change[blank_end] and population growth.- Atemporal
- Bspatial
- Cclimate
- Dchange
32Extra reading: Bonan et al.
- the worlds forests influence climate through physical, chemical and biological processes that affect planetary energetics, the hydrologic cycle and atmospheric composition all of which can [blank_start]increase[blank_end] or decrease the affects of anthropogenic [blank_start]climate[blank_end] change
- tropical, temperate, boreal reforestation and [blank_start]afforestation[blank_end] (afforestation = planting [blank_start]new[blank_end] trees) can all decrease global warming through carbon [blank_start]sequestration[blank_end] ([blank_start]carbon[blank_end] sequestration is the process of removing carbon from the atmosphere)
- tropical forests can decrease warming through [blank_start]evaporative[blank_end] cooling; evaporative [blank_start]cooling[blank_end] is reduction of temperature due to the evaporation of a liquid)
- boreal forests have low albedo compared to increasing [blank_start]pastures[blank_end]
Forests are under tremendous pressure from global gland
> interdisciplinary science that combines knowledge of interacting [blank_start]climate[blank_end] services and conservation are needed to mitigate climate change
> latest research is exploring the many climate benefits of forests
FACT: forests at present cover [blank_start]30[blank_end]% (nearly a third) of the lands surface
> forests provide ecological, economic, social and aesthetic services to natural systems and human kind
> forests store 45% of terrestrial carbon, contribute [blank_start]50[blank_end]% (half) of terrestrial net primary [blank_start]productivity[blank_end] and can sequester large amounts of carbon annually- Aincrease
- Bclimate
- Cafforestation
- Dnew
- Esequestration
- Fcarbon
- Gevaporative
- Hcooling
- Ipastures
- Jclimate
- K30
- L50
- Mproductivity
33Extra reading: food security [blank_start]Godfray[blank_end] et al.
- Godfray et al. continuing population increase and increase consumption ([blank_start]gdp[blank_end] per capita) will mean that the global demand for food will increase for at least another 40 years.
- growing competition for land, water and energy, in addition to the overexploitation of fisheries, will affect our ability to produce food, as will the urgent requirement to decrease the impact of our food system on the environment
- the effects of climate [blank_start]change[blank_end] are a further threat
- but the world can produce more food and can ensure that it used more efficiently and fairyl
- a multifaceted and linked global strategy is needed to ensure sustainable and equitable food security, different components of which are explored here ([blank_start]Godfray[blank_end] et al.)
In the last half century there have been marked increases in food production, allowing for a dramatic decrease in the proportion of the worlds population that are hungry, despite a doubling of the global population
- nevertheless, more than [blank_start]1[blank_end] in 7 people today still do not have access to sufficient protein and energy from their diet
Godfray et al. conclusions
> there is [blank_start]no[blank_end] simple solution to sustainably feeding 9 billion people, especially as many become increasing better off and converge on rich-country consumption patterns
- a broad range of options, including those we have discussed:
Godfray states we should
- [blank_start]decrease[blank_end]/reduce waste > with roughly [blank_start]30[blank_end]-40% of food in both the developed and developing world is lost to waste (although the causes behind this are very [blank_start]different[blank_end])
- change our diets: more people could be supported from the same amount of land if they were [blank_start]vegetarian[blank_end], about a [blank_start]third[blank_end] (1/3) of global cereal production is fed to animals, our increasing demand for meat and dairy over the past 50 years has lead to a [blank_start]1.5[blank_end] fold increase in the number of cattle sheep and goats, and 2.5 fold increase in pigs and [blank_start]chicken[blank_end]
> we need to also expand [blank_start]aquaculture[blank_end] = aquaculture
- if managed properly, minimising negative effects to the environment aquaculture can be a huge means to alleviate poverty
- with aquaculture providing nearly 3 [blank_start]billion[blank_end] people with at least [blank_start]15[blank_end]% of their animal protein intake (3 billion, 15%)- AGodfray
- Bgdp
- Cchange
- DGodfray
- E1
- Fno
- Gdecrease
- H30
- Idifferent
- Jvegetarian
- Kthird
- L1.5
- Mchicken
- Naquaculture
- Obillion
- P15
34extra reading:
- [blank_start]scale[blank_end] has a big influence on how we construct [blank_start]ecological[blank_end] studies, how we interpret results and understand the links between processes operating at different rates
- all of these factors heavily influence out ability to predict responses to change
- the ecological patterns and variability we observe range from mm to across [blank_start]ocean[blank_end] basins and from seconds to the expanse of evolutionary history
- patterns apparent at one scale can collapse to noise when viewed at another; this indicates that perceptions of the importance of different processes vary in a scale-dependent manner
- rather than the environment simply providing an arena within which organisms are born, grow and die, many organisms interact with the environment, altering it for both them and other species
- because of all these factors studying ecological systems is far from simple and scale needs to be considered in study design and analysis
Scale dependent aspects of the environment of organisms
- mobility/dispersal = the scale at which an organism experiences their environment is a function of how [blank_start]far[blank_end] and how frequently it moves (as well a body size); some species move only as larvae, or seeds but many others move frequently during their life time, species may also change their degree of mobility based on life stages
> mobility has both [blank_start]temporal[blank_end] and spatial components
> animals are usually categorised as either active (birds, mammals, reptiles) or passive (plankton, marine vertebrate larvae) but in reality there are a number of species that do [blank_start]not[blank_end] fit in these categories
Environmental and habitat preferences
- an organism response to an environment is not simply controlled by mobility, size or the length of tie an organism lives
- over long time scales species have evolved to live within specific environmental bands, thus species distributions can be overlaid on maps of relevant environmental conditions
> these bands may be altered by interactions with other species or [blank_start]human[blank_end] activities operating at different scales
Organism changes to environment
> the relationship between species and their environment is 2 way
> species can [blank_start]change[blank_end]/modify their environment e.g. herbivores
> these modifications can occur at a number of scales e.g. an organism that sticks out of the seabed in a single patch may make a difference compared to a wider area; the organism sticking out will alter the boundary currents, at a certain size, density and spacing of individuals this can lead to the phenomenon: [blank_start]skimming[blank_end] flow, skimming [blank_start]flow[blank_end] isolates organisms from the head current of water flow this can interact with other processes such as [blank_start]sediment[blank_end] resuspension and the availability of food from the water column- Aecological
- Bscale
- Cocean
- Dfar
- Etemporal
- Fnot
- Ghuman
- Hchange
- Iskimming
- Jflow
- Ksediment
Informationen
- Beschreibung
- Conservation Quiz am Conservation Challenges, erstellt von sophie waddington am 24/02/2019.
- Autor
- sophie waddington
- Sprache
- English
- Aufrufe
- 0
- Schlagwörter
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