Once gained, superpower status has to be maintained. How this is achieved has changed over time.
As recently as 1945, large parts of the world were under colonial rule
Most colonial powers were European, although the USA did maintain some colonies, e.g. the Philippines
Colonial rule usually has a number of distinct phases:
Exploration, resulting in the discovery of new lands
Initial settlement, usually on coasts, in defended forts
The beginnings of trade in raw materials
Gradual extension of rule over larger territories by direct military action and conquest
The development of political systems and institutions and transport and trade networks
both to rule the colony and to exploit its resources
Some colonies became relatively peaceful places, but the threat of military action against insurgents was ever-present and
indigenous people usually lacked freedoms, living mostly in poverty
Colonial
India
In India today it is possible to see the legacy of British rule
In order to maintain power, British military personnel, civil servants and businessmen emigrated to run the Raj
Symbols of power were built, such as the residence of the governor-general of India in Delhi
A process of acculturalisation was undertaken as British traditions such as cricket and tea-drinking, and crucially the English Language, were introduced
A strict social order was maintained, differentiating between ruling white British and the Indians
India was modernised so that its economy could better serve the needs of the mother country
Perhaps the most durable feature of this process was the railway system, built by the British
By 1880, 14,000km of railway had been built
By 1920, 61,000km had been built
The railways hugely improved transport and trade, but also allowed more efficient military transport - useful when putting down rebellions
When independence was granted in 1947 there followed a period of chaos as colonial India was partitioned
In many colonies, the era of decolonisation and independence brought conflict and division rather than the immediate freedom and prosperity people hoped for
In many countries, colonial borders did not reflect religious and ethnic boundaries, which led to conflict over territory
Although colonies had government institutions, indigenous people had been
excluded from running them, so experience in governance was lacking
As colonial powers packed up and left, insurgents took the opportunity to push them out, which resulted in violence
Neo-colonialism
After decolonisation and independence, some new national leaders argued that their countries were being
subjected to a new form of colonialism, waged by the former colonial powers and other developed nations
The term neo-colonialism was first used by Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of independent Ghana
He regarded neo-colonialism as worse than colonialism because, as he put it:
Neo-colonialism is the worst form of imperialism. For those who practice it, it means power without responsibility and for those who suffer from it, it means exploitation without redress.
In the days of old-fashioned colonialism, the imperial power had at least to explain and justify at home the actions it was taking abroad
In the colony those who served the ruling imperial power could at least look to its protection against any violent move by their opposition
With neo-colonialism
neither is the case
Neo-colonialism refers to a form of indirect control over
developing countries, most of them former colonies
Neo-colonialism is most often linked to Africa and is used as an explanation for the lack of development in that continent
Proponents of neo-colonialism point to evidence such as the share of world trade that goes to the
least developed countries to argue that neo-colonialism has prevented any real development
progress in the 40 years since colonies gained their independence
Neo-colonialism is a theory which cannot be proved, but its
supporters point to a number of mechanisms which work to allow the
developed world to maintain control over parts of the developing world
Neo-colonialism is really an extension of dependency theory
Possible mechanisms of neo-colonialism
Strategic
Alliances
The USA and USSR formed alliances with many developing nations
to spread their global influence, often by means of foreign aid
Aid
Aid can be given with 'strings attached', forcing the recipients to spend the aid in the way the donors wish
TNCs
Foreign direct investment, e.g. locating low-tech manufacturing in the developing world, means big profits for TNCs but low wages and few skills for the developing world
Terms
of
Trade
Low raw material and commodity export prices contrast with the
high prices the developing world must pay for manufactured goods
Global finance and debt
Many developing nations pay huge sums to the developed world each year in debt
interest payments, which often exceed aid receipts
Structural adjustment policies (SAPs
Countries wishing to have their debt relieved have to apply Western economic policies
devised by the World Bank and IMF, losing some of their economic sovereignty