EFF ANATOMY

bundle of axons
outside of CNS

small mass of nervous tissue composed of cell bodies
outside of CNS

nervous system of the GI tract
helps regulate digestive system

structures that monitor changes in our internal and external environment

detect stimuli in internal and external environment and then sends info to afferent or sensory neurons, which send signal to CNS

perception
processes sensory info by analyzing and storing some of it and by making decisions for an appropriate response

responds to integrated info (muscular contraction or glandular secretion)

convey info from sensory receptors (in skin, skeletal muscle, joints, and special senses) to CNS and from CNS to skeletal muscles only

convey info from mainly visceral organs (smooth muscle organs in thorax, abdomen, and pelvis) to CNS and from CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

branch of ANS
fight-or-flight (increased heart rate, sweat, pupils dilate)

lost ability to divide
sensing, thinking, remembering, controlling muscle, regulating secretions

can divide
maintain interstitial fluid that bathes neurons
support and protect neurons

at the end of the axon
contains nucleus and cytoplasm

branch off cell body
receives signals from other axons

yellowish in color
tail of neuron
carry nerve impulses

insulates axon and helps propagate signal

inside cell body
protein synthesis

connects cell body and axon

action potential starts trigger zone (where impulse arises)
right before/where axon starts

filled with neurotransmitter (inside of synaptic vesicles)

plaque buildup on myelin sheath, causing it to not work

type of neurotransmitter (excites)
released by synaptic vesicles and broken down by enzyme in synaptic cleft

most common type of neuron in body
several dendrites and one axon
all motor neurons and most neurons in CNS

one main dendrite and one axon
found in retina, inner ear, and olfactory part of brain

one cell process that extends from the cell body
sensory neurons

help to form BBB
protoplasmic (gray matter - short branching processes)
fibrous (long-branching processes, white matter)
structural support and memory
processes make contact with blood capillaries, pia mater, and neurons

have process that are responsible for forming the myelin sheath - a lipid and protein covering around some axons that insulates the axon and increases the speed of nerve impulse conduction

function as phagocytes and they remove cellular debris, microbes and damaged nervous tissue.
Originates in bone marrow and eventually migrates into central nervous system

line the ventricles of the brain and central canal of the spinal cordproduce, possibly monitor, and assist in the circulation of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). They also form the blood– cerebrospinal fluid barrier

also called neurolemmocytes, encircle PNS axons and form the myelin sheath around axons - participate in axon regeneration, which is more easily accomplished in the PNS

surround the cell bodies of neurons of PNS ganglia

regulate the exchange of materials between neuronal cell bodies and interstitial fluid. (kinda like microglia)

aggregations (collections) of myelinated and unmyelinated axons of many neurons
myelin = whitish

contains neuronal cell bodies, dendrites, unmyelinated axons, axon terminals, and neuroglia (no myelinated axons)

presynaptic neuron stimulates postsynaptic neuron

one single cell stimulates many others; send same signal to same area using a different amount of weight (just change stimulus)

one cell is stimulated by multiple other cells; blue=pre-synaptic red=post-synaptic; vomiting (smell, taste, sight all go into one output

the impulse from later cells repeatedly stimulate other cells to keep it going in a circuit; breathing

one single cell that stimulates a group of cells in a parallel row that ultimately stimulates one post-synaptic cell

the formation of new neurons that comes from stem cells; been proven that this can happen in one part of the brain called the hippocampus (seen limited results at other parts of the body)

most superficial layer; thick and strong, made of dense irregular connective tissue

cushion of fat and CT in between dura mater and wall of vertebral canal

a thin space containing interstitial fluid between the dura mater and the arachnoid mater

thin, avascular covering comprised of cells and thin, loose arrays of collagen
Spider web arrangement of delicate collagen fibers and some elastic fibers. Rare and difficult to dissect from the pia mater

space between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater containing the shock-absorbing cerebrospinal fluid

innermost layer; a thin transparent connective tissue layer that adheres to the surface of the spinal cord and brain. It consists of thin squamous to cuboidal cells within interlacing bundles of collagen fibers and some fine elastic fibers.

thickenings of pia mater fuse with arachnoid mater to anchor it in place

C4-T1

T9-T12

inferior to lumbar enlargement; the spinal cord terminates as this tapering, conical structure; around T12-L2

horse tail-like array of roots of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the spinal cord

extension of the pia mater that extends inferiorly and fuses with the arachnoid mater and dura mater to anchor the spinal cord to the coccyx; end of spinal cord

divide spinal cord into right and left

connects the white matter of the right and left sides of the spinal cord

horn that somatic motor nuclei that control skeletal muscles contractions

horn that has axons of sensory neurons, cell bodies, and axons of interneurons—interprets incoming sensory information

horn that is only in thoracic, upper lumbar, and some sacral segments of the spinal cord. Houses cell bodies of the autonomic motor nuclei – regulate contraction of smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands

anterior, posterior, and lateral
have both sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) tracts

spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord as these; converge to form larger roots that eventually form the ganglion and trunk

contain motor neurons

contain sensory neurons

swelling that contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons

sensory posterior root and motor anterior root converge to form this mixed nerve, containing sensory and motor neurons

serves the (dorsal) deep muscles and skin of the posterior surface of the trunk

ventral, (form plexus) serves the muscles and structures of the anterior trunk and limbs

reenters the vertebral canal through the intervertebral foramen and supplies the vertebrae, vertebral ligaments, blood vessels of the spinal cord, and meninges

components of the autonomic nervous system; supply smooth muscle and glandular tissue; lead to sympathetic chain of ANS

Axons from the anterior rami of spinal nerves, except for thoracic nerves T2–T12, that form networks on both right and left sides of the body by joining with various numbers of axons from anterior rami of adjacent nerves. They do this INSTEAD of going directly to the body structures they supply

Formed by the roots of nerves C1-C4
Supplies skin and muscles of the head, neck, and superior part of the shoulders and chest

Phrenic nerve compromised C1-C3 you run risk of respiratory failure

consists of nerves C5-T1, supplies shoulders and upper limbs

supplies deltoid and teres minor

supplies flexors in arm

goes all the way to fingertips, shoulder and arm extensors

go all the way into hand, supply flexors of wrist and hand (carpal tunnel - median)

(C5-6), wrist is hard to extend; shoulder is adducted, the arm is medially rotated, the elbow is extended, the forearm is pronated, and the wrist is flexed; there is loss of sensation along the lateral side of the arm.

radial nerve injury, inability to extend the wrist and fingers

cannot abduct or adduct fingers; loss of sensation over the little finger (clawhand)

winged scapula-paralysis of serratus anterior muscle, median border of scapula protrudes when arm is raised; arm cannot be abducted beyond horizontal position

numbness, tingling, and pain in fingers/inability to pronate forearm/flex fingers and wrist

External genitelia, anterior/med thigh, abdominal wall
Damage to the obturator nerve can cause paralysis to the thigh abductor (text question)
come off ventral rami of L1-L4

important for sex

vertebrae collapse and now they are resting on nerves

goes down thigh and splits into tibial and perennial/fibular
branches from L4-S3

(Peroneal)- damage to this causes foot drop
-Damage to tibial portion causes loss of anterior leg and foot

the area of skin that provides sensory input to the CNS via one pair of spinal nerves or the trigeminal nerve

main route that takes info through spinal cord into brain

Responsible for: pain, temperature, deep pressure, and crude touch

main tract that takes info up spinal cord into brain

responsible for proprioception (ability to know where you are) and discriminative touch, and 2 point discrimination (used to test for nerve damage, stick a patient in 2 places and see if they detect), pressure, and vibration

responsible for precise and voluntary movements of skeletal muscles

posture, muscle tone, and equilibrium; programming of automatic movements and coordination of body movements with visual stimuli, and coordination of visual events

thin membrane that separates the two hemispheres of the cerebrum

separates the two hemispheres of the cerebellum

separates the hemispheres of the cerebrum from the cerebellum

one in each hemisphere of the cerebrum

Protects the brain and spinal cord from physical and chemical injuries to the brain
Also contains oxygen, glucose, and other needed chemicals to promote use of neurons and neuroglia

thin membrane that separates the two lateral ventricles anteriorly

narrow, slit-like cavity along the midline superior to the hypothalamus and between the right and left halves of the thalamus

lies between the brain stem and the cerebellum

where most of the CSF is generated; network of modified blood capillaries in the walls of the ventricles that are covered by ependymal cells joined by tight junctions; ependymal cells form the CSF by filtration and secretion

reabsorb CSF

Contributions to homeostasis
Mechanical protection- serves as the shock absorber; protects the delicate tissues of brain and spinal cord from jolts that would otherwise cause them to hit the bony walls of the cranial cavity and vertebral canal
Chemical protection- provides an optimal response of neuronal circuit
Circulation-medium for minor exchange of nutrients and waste products between the blood and adjacent nervous tissue

Caused by blockage of CSF or trauma, but most of time doesn’t have learning disability
-Blockage comes in third/fourth ventricles

barrier consisting of specialized brain blood capillaries and astrocytes that prevents the passage of materials from the blood to the CSF and brain

allows oxygen, glucose, CO2, anesthetic drugs, and alcohol to cross

does not allow proteins and antibiotics
made of tight junctions

Blood vessel ruptures
Also called a stroke/brain attack
Clogged arteries caused by plaque can cause a CVA

Brain is blocked by a blood clot (could originate from other places)
Results can be from minor to severe

extension of spinal cord; begins at the foramen magnum and extends to the inferior border of the pons

Cardiovascular center that determines the force and rate of heartbeat and diameter of bv
Respiratory center: allows for rhythm of our breathing
Vasomotor: controls coughing, sneezing, swallowing

bulges/protrusions of white matter on the anterior aspect of the medulla oblongata, formed by the largest motor tracts
(Decussation of pyramids- why the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body- cross over)

Nerves 8-12

neurons signal impulses to the cerebellum and interprets proprioreceptive signals
Gives precision to movement

sensation of our fine touch and proprioception for the upper body

fine touch and proprioception of the lower body

Carries information from these 2 nuclei (gracile and cuneate - medulla) to the thalamus

controls muscles of tongue for speech and swallowing (motor)
speech, swallowing, chewing)

Cranial portion arises from the medulla and controls the skeletal muscles of throat and hard palate
Spinal portion arises from cervical part of the spinal cord (innervates sternocleidomastoid, trapezium)
shoulders for the movement of the head

mixed nerve (motor and sensory); controls cardiac and smooth muscles; controls secretion of digestive fluids in digestive track
(taste, monitoring blood pressure, O2 and CO2 levels, swallowing, vocalization, coughing, respiratory constriction, decrease in heart rate)

mixed nerve; taste buds on the posterior 1/3 of your tongue; controls a muscle that lifts throat in swallowing
secretion of saliva, touch and pain of skin in upper pharynx and external ear, BP, O2 and CO2 levels

Cochlear branch- in ear; responsible for hearing
Vestibular branch- receptors in vestibular apparatus that gives sense of balance, can cause vertigo
Ataxia: lack of coordination caused by compromised vestibulocochlear
(sensory)

nuclei in pons important for learning motor skills
ventral portion

Pneumotaxic- transition between inhale and exhale; will yield and override apneustic
Apneustic- signals end of breath

goes to facial muscles, mucus, salivary, nasal glands, tear glands, taste buds of anterior 2/3 of your tongue (motor + sensory portion)
touch and pain from skin in external ear canal

movement of eyeball

mixed nerve; touch and pain in face, scalp, and mouth (anterior 2/3 of tongue) motor portion allows us chew; has 3 branches of the sensory portion
(Opthalamic: goes to eye
Maxillary
Mandibular)

contain axons of these motor neurons from these three areas; conduct impulses from cerebrum to spinal cord, medulla, and pons, respectively
(Corticospinal
Corticobulbar
Corticopontine)

posterior part of midbrain
[Superior colliculi- coordinates your eye movements with visual stimuli]
[Inferior colliculi- coordinates your eye movements with sound/auditory stimuli]

neurons extend from here to basal ganglia and help control subconscious muscle activities and release dopamine (Parkinsons)

Axons from cerebellum and cerebral cortex form synapses that control muscle movement; high iron content gives pigmented color

goes to superior oblique eye muscle (eye nerve)

goes to 2 intrinsic eye muscles and 4 extrinsic eye muscles (eye nerve); responsible for shaping the lens of your eye
Affected in cataract patients
Changes shape of lens of eye

Entirely sensory; it contains axons that conduct nerve impulses for vision
Optic chiasm-where the optic nerves cross
Optic tracts in nucleus of thalamus-posterior to the chiasm, the regrouped axons, some from each eye

sense of smell
Entirely sensory; it contains axons that conduct nerve impulses for olfaction
Olfactory bulbs-paired masses of gray matter where the axon terminals of olfactory receptors form synapses with the dendrites and cell bodies of the next neurons in the olfactory pathway
Olfactory tracts-made up of the axons of these neurons
Arise in cribiform plate
Sense of smell is strongest because it bypasses the thalamus (only nerve that does so)

connect third and fourth ventricles

Reticular formation plays a role in waking you up to loud sounds
-Neurons within this area have ascending and descending tracts to help maintain consciousness as well as active while awake from sleep
-Also plays role in muscle tone- slight degree of tone even when relaxing

central constricted area between the two cerebellar hemispheres; inferior surface of cerebellum

lobes of cerebellum that govern subconscious aspects of our skeletal muscles and makes skilled movements ; gives you the ability to dance and catch a ball

lobe of cerebellum that contribute to equilibrium and balance

carries sensory information from the spinal cord (vestibular apparatus of the inner ear and from proprioceptors throughout the body into the cerebellum)

carries sensory information from the cerebral cortex and the basil ganglia (carry impulses for voluntary movements to nuclei in the pons to the cerebellum)

carries motor fibers that go to the motor control areas of your brain

Connects brain stem to cerebrum surrounded by cerebral hemispheres
Pituitary gland projects from diencephalon
Contains thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus

superior part of the diencephalon; major relay system for most of our sensory impulses that go to the brain
Major part of rage and aggression and arousal; damage to this area could lead to coma
The nuclei of every cranial nerve goes through the thalamus except for the olfactory nerve
Intermediate mass- bridge gray matter joins the right and left halves of the thalamus in about 70 percent of human brains

connects hypothalamus to limbic system

connects the cerebral cortex, the limbic system, and the basal ganglia

connects the superior colliculi and the limbic system and all lobes of the cerebrum

inferior part of diencephalonMajor regulator of homeostasis:
Control of ANS-autonomic nervous system
Production of hormones
Regulation of emotional and behavioral patterns
Pain, aggression, anger, etc.
Regulation of eating and drinking- thirst and hunger
Sleep patterns- Circadian rhythm

posterior to the thalamus
Contains the pineal gland-secretes melatonin (the hormone of “darkness”)
Only part with incomplete BBB
Small, size of pea

the deepest grooves within the gyri
Longitudinal-separates right and left halves of cerebrum
Transverse-separates cerebrum from cerebellum

shallow grooves between gyri (sulcus singular)
Central sulcus-separates frontal from parietal
Lateral sulcus-separates frontal from temporal
Parieto-occipital sulcus- separates parietal from occipital

folds of the cortical region of the cerebrum (gyrus singular)
Brain grows faster than skull so begins to fold in development
Precentral gyrus-anterior to central sulcus; contains the primary motor area of the cerebral cortex
Postcentral gyrus-posterior to central sulcus; contains the primary somatosensory area of the cerebral cortex

Frontal
Parietal
Temporal
Occipital

conduct nerve impulses between gyri in the same hemispheres

conduct the nerve impulses from the gyri in one hemisphere to the corresponding gyri in the other hemisphere

Conduct nerve impulses from cerebrum to lower parts of the central nervous system (brain stem and spinal cord)

Early onset (before 60) and late onset (older 60)
Loss of neurons that liberate acetylcholine-nucleus basalis
Beta-amyloid plaques- abnormal clusters of dead cells
Neurofibrillary tangles- twisted fragments of protein that build up on nerve bundles (clog up nerve cells from sending impulses)

three masses of gray matter

primary role in range of emotions and olfactory system

blood pressure and heart rate relating to emotional processing

spatial memory

usually the first part affected by Alzheimer’s; important role in the consolidation of information (short term to long term memory)

contributes to the formation of new memory

plays a primary roll in the formation and storage of memory that is associated with emotion (why we remember good and bad things)

carries signals from hippocampus to mammillary bodies (function in memory)

uncontrolled tremors; loss of dopamine-releasing neurons from substantia nigra

genetic, can cause behavioral disorders, moodiness, paranoia

forms in cortical and subcortical parts of the thalamus; suggested dysfunction of basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex

excess dopamine activity causes hallucinations and paranoia

obsessive thoughts that become obsessive behaviors; caused by basal nuclei and limbic system

Primary motor area- voluntary contraction of special motor skills; how we plan and execute our movements
Broca’s speech area- ability to understand spoken words
Wernicke’s area- ability to be bilingual

Primary somatosensory
Primary visual
Primary gustatory- taste
Primary olfactory

concerned with person’s personality, intellect, complex learning abilities, recall of information, initiative, judgment, foresight, reasoning, conscience, intuition, mood, planning for the future, and development of abstract ideas

association area that receive nerve impulses for touch, pain, temperature

understanding what you're looking at

disorder not a disease; affects brain waves and nervous system; non progressive but degenerating

brain tumor

not being able to speak words or not being able to think of the word you want to say

like Alzheimer’s

disturbance of brain activity that results in seizures

inflammation of the brain mostly due to infection

usually affects children 4-12; detrimental effects to major organs

Left brain- spoken and written language; numerical skills, sign language, reasoning (scientists)
Right brain- musical and artistic, spatial, emotional content of language, facial expressions (artists)
Women have more crossovers than men

generated by neurons; can be seen on an EEG (electron encephalograms, can diagnose medical conditions)
Alpha- awake and resting
beta- mental activity
theta- emotional stress
delta- deep sleep