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Political Economy of the Environment
Fichas del conjunto (34)
- 1What is climate change?- Increase in Earth's temp due to 'greenhouse effect' (brought about by emissions/human activity)
- Greenhouse gases: Co2, methane, CFCs, NO
- Associated w burning fossil fuels, human gen activity - industrial farming
- Agri sector - extensive methane emissions
- Methane c. 70x more powerful in terms of GH effect than CO2 - 2Higher temperatures- Lead to extreme weather events & long-term changes to planetary system
- Become common - strongly established correlation between extreme weather events & long-term climate change
- Wildfires, drought, famine
- Directly concerned w how day-to-day is harming future sustainability of life
- Some believe globalisation of capitalism is source of progress & ingenuity in which better world made through better environmental conditions
- Society under capitalism - innovates, renews, new forms of tech/research
- Some believe it accelerates process of exploitation of nature/humanity - 3We are living in a new planetary era- Term 'Anthropocene' described new era
- Human-dominated geological epoch
- Humans actions directly impacting upon Earth's future - new emerging force
- Societal understanding throughout history that man/nature are separate. Anthropocene questions this
- We are co-dependent on nature - forces us to look at capitalist-dominant way we organise societies - adverse impact on environment
- Could we use diff organisational structure
- Increased variability in climate, losing ecosystems, feedback mechanisms - 4Poorer countries: heightened vulnerabilit- Rel. to colonialism & historical patterns of trade
- Fewer financial resources to engage in climate adaptation
- More likely to be located in warmer tropical features of globe
- Tie directly to historical GPE
- Richer nations plundered commodities that can only grow in warmer climates - actively sought to repress industrialisation in GS
- Current climate crisis created by industrialisation nation - C from ground
- less likely to be polluters also - 5Who should pay for climate crisis- Poorer countries being asked to meet C targets but lack technical/financial support to do so
- Industrialised econs haven't radically moved from fossil fuels
- Not on track to meet intl. targets - COP26
- Caribbean had 30 tropical storms, incl. 6 major hurricanes - recovery.
- African countries - intensification of landslides/floods
- National climate adaptation plans asked to implement difficult to do - already experiencing impact of climate change
- Under UN Climate Convention - EU & 23 developed cs pledged to make 100bn available in developing countries p.a. - schemes to cut emissions, adaptations to mitigate damage causes by disasters
- Passed on through agencies e.g., Green Climate Fund
- Developing countries made nearly 80bn available in aid 2018 - only 21% money provided for adapting to climate impacts - 6Can global capitalism save us from doom: the optimists' view- Globalisation promotes greater cooperation & common environmental norms & standards
- Enhances capacity of a system of sovereign states to manage collective action problems - ozone depletion
- Globalisation pushes states to eliminate subsidies - contributed to market failures
- Globalisation enhances capacity of developing states to manage environmental change - transfer of tech, knowledge, assistance
- Processes part of wider domestic reforms to policies - incorporation of better environmental laws, stronger institutions - 7Can global capitalism save us? Critical view- Globalisation compounding ecological impact of more than 20 000 people being added to planet every day
- Promoting growth & more consumption p.d. - increasing amounts of natural resources, energy, infrastructure
- Reinforces neoclassical assumption that infinite econ growth is possible/desirable - should live simply & promote less exploitative system of production
- Exacerbates ecological inequalities in globe - developing countries suffer
- Current organisation of trade/production for GVC is based on MNCs extracting materials, resources, commodities from GS in destructive ways
- allowed MNCs to take advantage of lax regs/global competition to produce in developing cs w/out adhering to environ regs - 8Green Growth Paradigm (optimist)- Used by institutions - UN agencies, neoliberal institutions (IMF, OECD, WB)
- Seen/adopted by wealthy nation to address climate change
- Idea that expanding econ output is compatible w environmental sustainability - don't have to alter global capitalism
- Decoupling - unhook econ growth from emission of CO2 into atmosphere
- need develop mechanisms/policies to pursue agenda
- Doesn't matter how global emissions reduction targets are met - targets set & legally committed to but no consensus on how countries reach goals
- Green Growth emerges from system - addresses fallout from 2008 GFC
- Will tackle structural econ problems, foster econ output, reduce C emissions - 9Decoupling- Relative decoupling: increased econ output, slower growth in C emissions rel to that
- Absolute - econ output won't produce any C emissions
- Need rel. & absolute - 10Ecological Modernisation Theory- markets malleable - possible to harness capitalism & overarching structures for good of planet
- Comprised of market-/state-driven initiatives - 11Why green growth became answer- Intl. frameworks for climate mitigation (e.g. UNFCCC) don't stipulate how global emissions reductions are achieved (mechanisms/policies)
- 2008 - GFC - widespread recession
- Green growth tackles econ stagnation & climate change - 12Market-led approach to green growth- Openness to how system reduces emissions - absolute decline of emissions
- Harder for some industries to decarbonise - best way to reach aggregate goals - allow industries to buy/sell among themselves
- Aggregate emissions matter most - start where easiest/cheapest
- Overall target for emissions set by regulator - use C market to allow flexibility
- EU: infamous emissions trading system - 13Market-led: Emissions Trading System- Cornerstone of EU's strategy to tackle climate change
- EU worked to cut its greenhouse gas emissions w help of world's first intl. system for trading emissions allowances
- Creates financial incentives for biggest emitters to cutback - set cap on total amount of GHGs companies can emit each year in 2005 & monitors
- Fixed no. of allowances - currency of C market - issues each year
- Over time, cap reduced, fewer allowances issued
- Covers c. 1/2 EU's emissions, more than 3/4 of intl. C market
- Putting price on C is possible & makes econ sense - flexible, cost-effective, business-friendly - 14Market-led: offsetting mechanisms- How we account for & make up for emissions already released
- if industry emitted a lot, offset by buying into scheme/initiative e.g., reforestation
- Allows heaviest industries to buy time - innovate/find new ways to make use of renewable energies
- Aggregate emissions target
- Compensation scheme for govt., companies, individuals
- Some pay poorer countries to switch to cleaner fuels as build infrastructure
- Voluntary C market worth c. £300m last year
- Critics see as way for wealthy to avoid/delay steps to reduce own use of fossil fuels
- need to reduce dependence on fossil fuels
- Offsetting not permanent - trees cut down
- Less state oversight - firms use expertise to transform sectors - 15Influences behind theory of market-led green growth- C markets influenced by ideas of Hayek (argues vs modernism)
- Hayek argues knowledge is dispersed - market distributes through price signals
- Knowledge is partial - market needed to harmonise disparate info
- Problems not resolved by govt. - no intervention.
- Movement of market best way
- Financialisation - market-led form. Increased role/power of financial institutions - need money to invest in renewable tech - 16State-led approach (Keynesian)- Increasingly common
- The Green New Deal promotes state-led planning/investment for decarbonisation
- Markets alone won't arrive at new green growth norm - markets need to be led by nation-states acting in authoritative ways to build new green markets/invest in tech
- GND built upon diverse coalitions of stakeholders
- long-term planning
- US 2019 Green New Deal resolution incl. social measures, incl. job creation/public provision
- State has to invest - climate mitigation - 17Influences behind theory of state-led green growth- Keynes argues that due to lack of info, investors will not invest
- Investors follow norms & states should invest 1st
- Govt have critical role in shaping investor behaviour - 18Degrowth- Challenges idea growth is compatible w climate change
- Econ growth doesn't lead to sustainable social, econ, environmental needs of planet
- Imposes limits on growth to change focus of future devpt.
- Ensures life at centre of econ systems - challenges idea econ growth is good for everyone
- Rich countries urged to reduce inequal through job guarantees, shorter working week, universal min income
- Low income countries growing econ sustainably until reach parity
- Not every sector of econ should grow regardless of need - focus on public transport/sustainable energy - 19Jason Hickel & Giorgos Kallis (2020) on Green Growth- Green growth emerged central theme Rio+20 Conference on SD 2012
- Assumed in intl./national policy, incl. SDGs - 20Hickel & Kallis on Empirical Evidence- Does not support theory
found:
1. no empirical evidence that absolute decoupling from resource use can be achieved on global scale in context of continued econ growth
2. Absolute decoupling from C emissions highly unlikely to be achieved at rapid enough rate to prevent global warming over 1.5 or 2 degrees
3. Misguided objective - need alternative strategies for policymakers - 21Hickel & Kallis: defining green growth- Institutional proponents: OECD, UNEP, WB - all joined w Global Green Growth Institute to advance gg strategy
- OECD def: fostering econ growth & devpt whilst ensuring natural assets continue to provide resources & environmental services on which wellbeing relies
- WB def weak
- Broad, vague defs
- Agree on mech for achieving gg but differ in clarity of claims - 22Resource use - is absolute decoupling possible?- DMC as metric for econ resource use - good measure (Krausmann et al, 2019)
- Divide GDP by DMC to indicate resource efficiency of econ
- Many nations achieve rel. decoupling - GDP grows faster DMC - econ resource efficient - key data for optimists on gg
- DMC problematic - doesn't incl. material impact of production/transport of imported goods
- When included, shows material footprint rising at rate equal to or greater than GDP
- Only sig case decoupling: China, India, SA
- Global resource-use rising - global extraction/consumption material increased 8x from 1900-2005. Consumption by 93.4% 1980-2009
- 21st increase in growth rate of consumption matching growth rate of GDP - no decoupling, far from it
- Some rel. decoupling, no absolute - 23Hickel & Kallis on arguments that tech innovations & govt. policy will drive decoupling- Dittrich et al (2012) - carrying on as we are = material use rise 68bn tons 2008 --> 280bn tons 2050
- Schandl et al (2016) - sig increase resource use
- UNEP developed model to explore future scenarios - even high efficiency situ see rise to 132bn tons by 20150
- Rel. decoupling but no absolute - suggests absolute not poss on global scale. w continued econ growth
- Ward et al - decoupling of GDP growth from resource use only temporary
- GG theory in terms of resource-use lacks empirical support - requires rapid absolute decoupling
- no evidence for assumptions - 24Hickel & Kallis on C emissions - is growth compatible w Paris Agreement?- Steady long-term trend to rel. decoupling of GDP from C emissions
- Can we reduce emission fast enough to stay within C budget of 1.5/2 degrees w econ growth
- High-income cs see declining emissions + econ growth. US & EU28 reduction from 2006-16 - absolute decouple
- Existing trends incompatible w Paris - business as usual = 4.2 degrees of warming by 2100 - exceeds threshold
- Reliance on BECCS - allows for large c budget. No evidence of feasibility j allows politicians to postpone rapid emission reductions
- Without reliance on BECCS, emissions need to fall to net zero by 2050 for 1.5
- 6.8% p.a. - 100% renewable energy needed & afforestation, soil regen
- Required rates of decoupling/emissions reductions only possible under v. optimistic, unrealistic conditions
i.e. decoupling must occur at rate of 15.8% p.a. - 8x faster than historic rate - 25Concl from Hickel * kallick- Empirical evidence q legitimacy of WB/OECD efforts to promote GG. Policy programmes relying on GG assumptions need revisiting
- More likely to achieve reductions w/out growth
- Degrowth of production/consumption
- New clean efficient energy tech, shift from C-intenisve to low or zero C sectors, green taxes, shift in public investment
- Is insistence of GG pol. motivated - 26Clapp & Helleiner- 1990s focus on IPEE influenced by policy agenda promoted by 1987 Brundtland Report & 1992 Rio Earth Summit
- Advocated strengthening linkages between IE & environ cooperation
- Argue that narrow focus on treaties, institutions & regimes within IPEE = rel. neglect of environ implications of larger structural trends:
1. Globalisation of intl. financial markets
2. Rise of newly powerful states
3. Emergence of high/volatile commodity prices - 27Clapp & Helleiner on IPE & environmnet- Contemporary IPE from '70s response to change - econ interdependence rise, growth of TNCs, breakdown of Bretton Woods, 1973 oil shock, devp countries demands for New Intl. Econ Order
- Politicisation of world econ
- q rel. between pol. & econ in world
- Pirage argued that explaining devpts in IPE would be enhanced by 'understanding of evolutionary rel. among humans... societies and life-sustaining global ecosystems' - 28Growing interest in envioronment- How resource scarcity, limited carrying capacity of earth affected dynamics of IPE
- Environmental impact of liberalised/expanding trade, industrial/resource-focused TNCs
- How intl. econ regimes (WTO, NAFTA, IMF, WB) address environ issues - rise of privare governance regimes (Kyoto/post-Kyoto)
- Focus on intl. cooperative initiatives - 1987 Brundtland Report, 1992 Rio Earth Summit - catalysts in encouraging greater intl. attention to environ-econ link
- Need 4 intl. cooperation - proliferation of cooperative initiatives to link governance of ecno & environ
- Susan Strange on focus on treaties, institutions, regimes = neglect of no, of GE structural trends - 29Clapp & Helleiner- : Globalisation of financial markets- Impact on national policy autonomy, class conflict, distribution of power
- Little attention to environ impacts
- need research on implications of decisions made within large/influential global private financial flows
- Creation of voluntary intl. standards for private financial actors - intl. banks, investor, accountants
- Understudied influence of standards on environ outcomes
- First efforts from business leaders post-Rio 1996 - World Business for SD
- 'Financing Change' published - how financial markets' encouragement of short-termism undermines SD
- Some powerful institutional investors allied w environ groups - demand disclosure of firms' environ rel. material risks
NEED more research - 30Clapp & Helleiner on Sovereign Wealth Funds (SWFs)- Key investors in markets
- Combined assets larger than entire hedge fund industry
- managers influenced by profit & public goals
- Some have environ consequences:
1. Positive: Norway's fund mandated to uphold intl. environ conventions
2. Neg: used to secure commodities abroad w bad environ impact - 31Clapp & Helleiner on rising econ powers: China, India & IPEE- Rapid econ growth, growing pol standing in WTO, IMF, WB, G20
- Not enough about environ impact
- Under Kyoto Protocol, developing countries exempt from making commitments to reduce C emissions - refusal of Japan, Canada, Russia
- Key to bring large developing countries - China/India - into climate governance agreements - rising C emisisons
- Since 2006 - China largest C emitter
- India 3rd
- China accounts for 25% world's C emissions
- China's oil consumption expected to double by 2030. 2nd largest importer
- India 5th energy consumer in world. From 1960 ff consumption rose by 12x - 32Clapp & Helliner on problem- Not enough on broader environ impact of rapid industrial growth in these contries on global ecosystems, land use, resource availability
- Due to little intl. cooperation regimes in place
- Governance gap
- Need pay close attention to industrial transitions in emerging powers & interactions w industrialised countries - 33Clapp & Helleiner on High/vol commodity prices- Little attention - emerged esp. since 2007/8
- Dearth of research due to lack of environ cooperation regimes linked to comm prices
- Linkages exist between comm prices & environ outcomes
- Encourage greater conservation, support for renewable energy BUT also scramble for resources, intensified production
- Rising food/agri prices - intensification of industrial agri - stress on ecosystems e.g. soil erosion & overcultivation
- Agri relies on ff - accounts for 20% of GG emissions
- high/vol prices prompted large-scale land acquisition in developing countries by foreign investors - 34Clapp & Helleiner conclusions- Need for IPEE scholars to research & link to broader global context, other trends
- All linked - actors in GF markets key to land investment in Africa
- need to consider global linkages & power dynamics
- Must examine trend together - intersect & reinforce each other
Información
- Descripción
- - Causes of climate change - Rel. between capitalism & climate change - Solutions for solving climate crisis
- Creado por
- Isla Duguid · abr 2022
- Actualizado
- 26 abr 2022
- Visitas
- 3
- Valoración