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Phonetics & Pronunciation
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- 1What is the difference between phonetics and phonology?Phonetics: - is about the physical nature of human speech sounds
- does not refer to a particular language
- it is about forms and features in general
Phonology: - deals with the way speech sounds behave in particular languages or in languages in general
- it examines functions and patterns of sounds (either across different languages or in one language)
- it is about rules, relations and distinctive features - 2What kind of parameters concerning the classification of consonants do you know?- place of articulation
- manner of articulation
- fortis vs lenis
- voicing
Must be produced with some kind of obstruction (complete or partial). - 3What kind of parameters concerning the classification of vowels do you know?t- height of the tongue (high-mid-low)
- place of the tongue (front, centre and back)
- lip rounding
- length of vowel /:/
(no obstruction) - 4What is meant by the term "arbitrariness of speaking"?The same letter can represent different sounds, more than one letter can be pronounced as a single sound, one sound can be represented in different languages (and also in one and the same language) by many different letters.
So, by representing sounds by phonetic symbols and by transcribing words and sentences by using these symbols, speakers of many different languages can easily deduce the correct pronunciation (even if the distinct sounds will most likely be spelled completely differently in the different speakers’ mother tongues). - 5What is the vocal tract and what does it consist of?- the vocal tract is the air passage above the larynx
- it consists of the oral tract (within the mouth) and the nasal tract (within the nose) - 6How is speech actually produced? (Name 4 steps)1. The airstream process: includes all the ways of pushing air out that provide the power for speech.
2. The phonation process: the actions of the vocal cords (e.g., vibrating or non-vibrating).
3. The oro-nasal process: determines the possibility of the air going out through the
mouth or the nose.
4. The articulatory process: the movements of the tongue and lips interacting with the roof of the mouth and the pharynx. - 7Manner of articulation: Name 8 different ways to produce consonants.1. Plosives
2. Affricates
3. Nasals
4. Laterals
5. Fricatives
6. R-sounds (i.e. Scottish accent)
7. Frictionless continuants
8. Semi-vowels - 8Explain: Plosives• Two articulators produce a full closure (English: both lips, tongue-tip and alveolar ridge, back of tongue and velum)
• The air has to go somewhere, so the closure is released suddenly, resulting in an explosive sound
• Voiceless plosives (in English) are followed by a puff of air called aspiration. Aspiration is the main auditive cue for distinguishing /p, t, k/ from /b, d, g/! - 9Explain: Affricates• in English, there are two affricates: /ʧ/ and /ʤ/
• both involve a full closure between the tongue- blade and the back of the alveolar ridge (post- alveolar)
• Different from plosives, the closure is not released by exploding it, but the tongue-blade moves away from the alveolar ridge and the air is flowing through this small opening, resulting in a fricative sound.
• Affricates are one sound with two qualities! - 10Explain: Nasal• The places of full closure are the same as for plosives in English: bilabial, alveolar, velar
• In order to let the air out, the velum is lowered and the air flows through the nose.
• Say [m, n, ŋ] and hold your hand under your nostrils to feel the air stream out! - 11Explain: Laterals (Lateral Approximant)• There are two laterals in English: clear [l] and dark [ɫ]
• Both are produced with the tongue-tip forming a closure
at the alveolar ridge
• „Lateral“ refers to the way the air escapes: the sides of the tongue are lowered and the air flows out that way
• Dark [ɫ] is velarised, i.e., the back of the tongue is retracted towards the velum. Appears when followed by a consonant or silence.
• The term „lateral approximant“ refers to the fact that the lateral opening is large enough that there is no friction
• The opposite are lateral fricatives, which are not present in English
- clear l appears when followed by a vowel - 12Explain: Fricatives• very narrow passage between articulators
• when the air flows through this narrow opening, it is moving very fast, resulting in turbulence in the airstream, audible as high-frequency friction
• „hissing“ noise - 13Explain: Approximants - semi vowels - frictionless continuant• Frictionless continuant: a consonant produced without friction and with prolongable voicing – refers to the English r-sound, which is correctly transcribed as [ɹ]
• Semi-vowels: consonants with only little narrowing, so that the air flows out without turbulence/friction. English [w, j] behave like vowels in their articulation, but like consonants with regard to their usually occurring in syllable boundary positions - 14What is the difference between rothic and non-rothic accents?Rhotic varieties: [r] is pronounced in all contexts.
Non-rhotic: the [r] is not pronounced when it occurs in the spelling before a consonant or at the
end of a word (before a pause). The [] is only pronounced before a vowel.
Note: In non-rhotic varieties of English, [r] is generally pronounced across word boundaries - 15What is the difference between fortis vs lenis?Energy of articulation:
This distinction applies only to obstruents (i.e., Stops and fricatives)
Fortis: Voiceless sounds (greater tenseness of muscles in mouth, tongue and throat, greater breath force)
Lenis: Voiced sounds (less tenseness and breath force)
This distinction becomes necessary when whispering (no vibration of vocal cords) when the voiced/voiceless distinction becomes redundant. - 16What is the difference between obstruents and sonorants?Obstruents: sounds produced with major obstruction in the mouth, i.e., the airflow is noticeably restricted with the articulators either in complete closure or close approximation.
Obstruents can be voiced or voiceless, e.g. /f-v/
Sonorants: either there is no restriction in the oral tract, or the nasal tract is open, either way, the air has free passage through the vocal tract.
Sonorants are always voiced, e.g. /n, m, l/ - 17What is the difference between monophthong and diphthong?Monophthong versus Diphthong
i.e. whether tongue remains in the same position or not.
Monophthong: a steady-state vowel articulation.
Diphthong: vowel articulation that involves movement of tongue from one position to another. - 18What kinds of allophones do you know?positional allophones: phonetic context determines which variant is used: e.g. clear and dark /l/ (=complementary distribution)
regional/speaker specific allophones: different dialectal variants of /r/ (=free variation) - 19Do you know the phonological function of stress?• word stress
• sentence stress
• shift stress
• contrastive stress - 20What different degrees of stress do you know?1. primary stress: the most prominent syllable in a word – it is louder, longer and the vowel is not reduced
2. secondary stress: other stressed syllables in polysyllabic words (but not bearing primary stress) – less loud or otherwise prominent than primary stress, but also no reduced vowel
3. no stress: weak/unstressed syllables – reduced vowel, pretty low and short - 21What is the difference between a strong form and a weak form? Concerning sentence stress.Words which are unstressed in connected speech (only monosyllabic words) can
take what is termed a „weak“ form, e.g., grammatical words.
e.g. „but“ is /bʌt/ in isolation, but weakened to /bət/ in unstressed positions in connected speech
It is about centralisation (Schwa is the most central vowel).
• Some of these words appear in their strong form only in a few particular cases, i.e. when stressed for special focus on them (a, the)
• e.g. He is not just a /eɪ/ singer – he is the /ðiː/ singer!
• usually, a and the are /ə/ and /ðə/ - 22Explain: Shift StressA common phenomenon in English, involving both word and sentence stress
Many words that have both a main and a secondary stress when said in isolation or as single constituents in sentences shift the primary stress to the syllable that usually bears secondary stress, and the primary-stress syllable loses its stress.
Adjectives ending in –ese indicating nationalities
• Chinese, Portuguese, Faroese... The man is Chinese /ʧaɪˈniːz/ The Chinese /ˈʧaɪniːz/ man.
Numbers above twelve
• thirteen, twenty-one, fifty-two
The boy is thirteen – He is thirteen years old. - 23Explain: Word stress• in words of two or more syllables, one syllable is more prominent than the others – it is stressed
• another term for word stress is lexical stress, because stress can also be phonemic (i.e., it can be distinctive/change the meaning of a word)
• e.g. import /ˈɪmpɔːt/ vs. /ɪmˈpɔːt/ - 24Explain: Contrastive stress• Stress can also be used to mark contrast. Consider: “I said a big farm, not a pig farm”
The unknown man vs. the man is unknown - 25Explain: Sentence stresswhen words are part of a longer utterance (e.g. a sentence), their lexical stress is often overruled by sentence stress
- 26Explain: Shift stressa common phenomenon in English, involving both word and sentence stress
• many words that have both a main and a secondary stress when said in isolation or as single constituents in sentences shift the primary stress to the syllable that usually bears secondary stress, and the primary-stress syllable loses its stress.
Adjectives ending in –ese indicating nationalities
• Chinese, Portuguese, Faroese... The man is Chinese /ʧaɪˈniːz/
Numbers above twelve
• thirteen, twenty-one, fifty-two - 27What kind of phonological processes do you know?- Elision
- Assimilation (progressive & regressive)
- Coalescence
- Epenthesis
- Compression - 28Explain: Elision... is a process in connected speech whereby a sound that ought to be in a word is deleted.
Common example is schwa-elision that leads to syllabicity of sonorant consonants in unstressed syllables:
• button > /ˈbʌtən/ > [ˈbʌtn] - 29Explain: Alveolar plosive elisionAlveolar plosives (/t, d/) are elided when:
- they are in the coda of a syllable (not the onset)
- they are preceded by a consonant of the same voicing (thus /t/ must be preceded by a voiceless consonant and /d/ by a voiced consonant)
-the following sound is a consonant (other than /h/) - 30Explain: AssimilationA feature of connected speech: a process whereby one sound influences the articulation of another, usually adjacent or near-adjacent, sound.
so if one sound assimilates to another sound, this means that it takes on phonetic features (e.g. voicing, place or manner of articulation) of that other sound, thus becoming more similar to that sound.
• the modification is so strong that the assimilated sound seems to be a different phoneme
-s, -ed ending assimilate concerning voicing - 31Explain: CoalescenceTwo adjacent sounds merge to form a single sound.
- 32Explain: EpenthesisInsertion of a segment into a word
- 33Explain: Compression (about vowels)A process which reduces the number of syllables in a particular word or phrase or „shortens“ a syllable.
This may be done by:
- Vowel elision: deleting a vowel altogether
- Class change, e.g., a syllabic segment (a vowel) becomes a
related consonantal glide ( semi-vowel)
- Collapsing two vowels into one in a form of coalesence
(two adjacent sounds come together to form one different but related sound) - 34—
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- Fichas sobre Phonetics & Pronunciation, creado por sina emrich el 25/04/2017.
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