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Key Concept 3.2 Continuity and Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions

Ana Hale 20 preguntas

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  1. 1"State formation in this era [blank_start]demonstrated[blank_end] remarkable continuity, innovation and [blank_start]diversity[blank_end] in various regions. In Afro-Eurasia, some states attempted, with differing degrees of success, to preserve or revive [blank_start]imperial structures[blank_end], while smaller, less [blank_start]centralized[blank_end] states continued to develop. The expansion of [blank_start]Islam[blank_end] introduced a new concept — the [blank_start]Caliphate[blank_end] — to Afro-Eurasian statecraft. Pastoral peoples in Eurasia built powerful and distinctive empires that integrated [blank_start]people[blank_end] and [blank_start]institutions[blank_end] from both the [blank_start]pastoral and agrarian[blank_end] worlds. In the Americas, powerful states developed in both [blank_start]Mesoamerica[blank_end] and the [blank_start]Andean[blank_end] region." [1]

    I. Empires collapsed and were reconstituted; in some regions new state forms emerged.

    A. States that reformed during this time period built upon the [blank_start]foundations[blank_end] of the classical ages; they found traditional sources of [blank_start]authority[blank_end] and legitimacy as reliable ground for the [blank_start]reconstitution[blank_end] of their civilizations. In such cases, these states had to combine these revived [blank_start]traditions[blank_end] with innovations in order to adapt to new circumstances. This process formed unique combinations of the [blank_start]old and new[blank_end].

    1. Ademonstrated
    2. Bdiversity
    3. Cimperial structures
    4. Dcentralized
    5. EIslam
    6. FCaliphate
    7. Gpeople
    8. Hinstitutions
    9. Ipastoral and agrarian
    10. JMesoamerica
    11. KAndean
    12. Lfoundations
    13. Mauthority
    14. Nreconstitution
    15. Otraditions
    16. Pold and new
  2. 2CHINA
    During the classical age, the [blank_start]Han[blank_end] Dynasty found that a [blank_start]bureaucracy[blank_end] of merit made of [blank_start]Confucian[blank_end] scholars was more conducive to running a [blank_start]centralized[blank_end] state than relying on local [blank_start]aristocrats[blank_end] to implement [blank_start]imperial[blank_end] rule. In the post classical age the [blank_start]Tang[blank_end] Dynasty reinstated this tradition of using a Confucian bureaucracy in China's [blank_start]political system[blank_end]. The Confucian [blank_start]civil service exams[blank_end] were brought back, and candidates studied Confucian classics with the hope of meriting an esteemed post in the Chinese government. One [blank_start]effect[blank_end] of reestablishing the civil service bureaucracy was that the cultural content of Confucianism continued to [blank_start]influence[blank_end] Chinese civilizations. For example, [blank_start]patriarchy[blank_end] continued to be a feature of Chinese society during the Tang Dynasty and traditional social [blank_start]hierarchies[blank_end] were reinforced.

    The Tang did not simply copy the [blank_start]accomplishments[blank_end] of the Han. Onto these borrowed [blank_start]traditions[blank_end] they grafted their own innovations. One such innovation resulted from the Tang's attempt to address a problem that [blank_start]crippled[blank_end] the Han during the last centuries of its rule: the unequal distribution of [blank_start]land[blank_end] across society. The Tang developed the equal field system to prevent peasant land from falling into the hands of the [blank_start]aristocracy[blank_end], which happens so often during hard economic times. In this system, the government owned all the land but periodically [blank_start]redistributed[blank_end] it to families according to their need. This provided for a fairer distribution of land and a more [blank_start]equitable[blank_end] method of [blank_start]taxation[blank_end] (although the basis for calculating the tax was an issue of intense debate during the Tang.) [2]
    1. AHan
    2. Bbureaucracy
    3. CConfucian
    4. Dcentralized
    5. Earistocrats
    6. Fimperial
    7. GTang
    8. Hpolitical system
    9. Icivil service exams
    10. Jeffect
    11. Kinfluence
    12. Lpatriarchy
    13. Mhierarchies
    14. Naccomplishments
    15. Otraditions
    16. Pcrippled
    17. Qland
    18. Raristocracy
    19. Sredistributed
    20. Tequitable
    21. Utaxation
  3. 3Another innovation of the Tang Dynasty was its policy of establishing [blank_start]tributary[blank_end] states. Although earlier Chinese dynasties collected tribute, the practice became more complex and standardized under the Tang. The Chinese tributary system was based on their belief that Chinese civilization was [blank_start]superior[blank_end] to others, but barbarian and [blank_start]non-Chinese[blank_end] people could have access to Chinese ways providing they ceremonially recognized the [blank_start]supremacy[blank_end] of China and [blank_start]paid tribute[blank_end] to the emperor. [3] Thus China could "radiate" its superior civilization to [blank_start]barbarian[blank_end] people around it. In reality, the tributary system was a means for [blank_start]China[blank_end] to control conquered lands that often proved difficult to rule. Chinese dynasties had long tried to project their control over the [blank_start]Korean peninsula[blank_end]; indeed, its long costly war with Korea did much to discredit the [blank_start]Sui[blank_end] Dynasty, the Tang's predecessor. The Tang Dynasty gave its support the the Silla family of Korea to ensure their rule over the entire Korean peninsula, but it cost the Silla their [blank_start]independence[blank_end]. The price China demanded for helping the Silla was that they become a [blank_start]tributary state[blank_end] of the Tang emperor. Each year representatives from [blank_start]Korea[blank_end] traveled to the Chinese capital to purchase their rule with payments of tribute. They returned with Chinese customs, [blank_start]fads[blank_end], Buddhist writings, clothing fashions, and literature. Through this tributary relationship much Chinese [blank_start]influence[blank_end] made its way into Korea.[4]

    In summary, the recovery of [blank_start]Chinese civilization[blank_end] in the post classical era was made possible by building on [blank_start]classical traditions[blank_end], such as the Confucian civil service [blank_start]bureaucracy[blank_end], and fusing them with new administrative practices such as the equal field system and the creation of tributary states.
    1. Atributary
    2. Bsuperior
    3. Cnon-Chinese
    4. Dsupremacy
    5. Epaid tribute
    6. Fbarbarian
    7. GChina
    8. HKorean peninsula
    9. ISui
    10. Jindependence
    11. Ktributary state
    12. LKorea
    13. Mfads
    14. Ninfluence
    15. OChinese civilization
    16. Pclassical traditions
    17. Qbureaucracy
  4. 4THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
    The Byzantine Empire thought of itself as the continuation of [blank_start]Roman[blank_end] civilization, so it was only natural that it would continue and build upon the foundations of classical Rome. One of Rome's most enduring legacies was its system of [blank_start]law[blank_end]. Indeed, even the [blank_start]barbarians[blank_end] who brought down the western half of the empire in the 5th century adopted the system of Roman law to regulate their civilizations. In the surviving eastern half of the Roman Empire the task to update laws and make them relevant to the new situation of Byzantine civilization fell to the emperor [blank_start]Justinian[blank_end]. Although he technically lived before the post classical age (482-565 CE) his [blank_start]code of laws[blank_end] profoundly influenced the Byzantine empire and constitute the greatest example of the Byzantine Empire building on a tradition of Rome.

    As the classical age drew to a close, many of the previous Roman laws were rendered [blank_start]obsolete[blank_end] by changing conditions of the empire. Confusing and [blank_start]contradictory[blank_end] laws hindered the functioning of courts. Moreover, Roman civil law often conflicted with the eastern empire's adopted religion of [blank_start]Christianity[blank_end].[5] In response to this situation, Justinian commissioned the formation of several bodies of law which are collectively referred to as the [blank_start]Code of Justinian[blank_end].

    Like classical Roman Law, the Code of Justinian gave [blank_start]order and security[blank_end] to a collection of diverse peoples across the breadth of the empire. It punished dishonest [blank_start]tax collectors[blank_end] and encouraged [blank_start]honest trade[blank_end]. "Rape was punished by death and confiscation of property, and the proceeds were given to the injured woman." [6] What was entirely new about the Code was its enactment of [blank_start]Christianity morality[blank_end] into [blank_start]Roman civil law[blank_end]. It enforced the Church's views on divorce, adultery and homosexuality, and the Church's property was protected as a [blank_start]permanent holding[blank_end]. Death, torture and mutilation were common [blank_start]punishments[blank_end]. The Code of Justinian was an innovation but one built upon one of Rome's most successful traditions: law.
    1. ARoman
    2. Blaw
    3. Cbarbarians
    4. DJustinian
    5. Ecode of laws
    6. Fobsolete
    7. Gcontradictory
    8. HChristianity
    9. ICode of Justinian
    10. Jorder and security
    11. Ktax collectors
    12. Lhonest trade
    13. MChristianity morality
    14. NRoman civil law
    15. Opermanent holding
    16. Ppunishments
  5. 5Another of the Byzantine Empire's [blank_start]innovations[blank_end] was prompted by a pressing security issue: the advance of [blank_start]Islam[blank_end] on its eastern frontier. Protecting its borders against barbarian incursions was a significant problem for the [blank_start]late Roman Empire[blank_end], but Islam represented a much more organized front. To counter this [blank_start]threat[blank_end] the Byzantine Empire developed a system of [blank_start]imperial[blank_end] organization called the theme system. Each [blank_start]theme[blank_end], or province, was placed under the leadership of a general who organized its administration and defense. Each general was responsible directly to the [blank_start]emperor[blank_end] and he recruited his armies from the [blank_start]free peasants[blank_end]. In return for military service, the peasants were given [blank_start]land[blank_end]. The theme system provided [blank_start]incentives[blank_end] for increased [blank_start]grain[blank_end] production and gave the empire [blank_start]effective and loyal[blank_end] soldiers. Under this system the empire protected its [blank_start]eastern borders[blank_end] and captured additional land in [blank_start]Anatolia[blank_end] and present day [blank_start]Syria[blank_end].[7]

    Unlike most of the era of Western Rome, the Byzantine Empire had an official religion, [blank_start]Orthodox Christianity[blank_end]. To adapt to this circumstance the Empire developed a new [blank_start]model of authority[blank_end]. Beginning with Constantine and extending to the end of the empire, they operated under an ideology called [blank_start]Caesaropapism[blank_end], the vesting of political and religious authority under a [blank_start]single figure[blank_end]. Thus the emperor, the political head of state, simultaneously acted as the head of the [blank_start]organized Church[blank_end]. Again, Byzantine civilization innovated to meet the circumstances of the empire's [blank_start]realities[blank_end].    Imagen de la pregunta 5
    1. Ainnovations
    2. BIslam
    3. Clate Roman Empire
    4. Dthreat
    5. Eimperial
    6. Ftheme
    7. Gemperor
    8. Hfree peasants
    9. Iland
    10. Jincentives
    11. Kgrain
    12. Leffective and loyal
    13. Meastern borders
    14. NAnatolia
    15. OSyria
    16. POrthodox Christianity
    17. Qmodel of authority
    18. RCaesaropapism
    19. Ssingle figure
    20. Torganized Church
    21. Urealities
  6. 6B. Not all states in this era were reconstituted from the classical period. Some were new and built themselves from limited connections to the past.

    THE ISLAMIC STATES


    A distinctive feature of the post classical period is the [blank_start]rapid[blank_end] rise of [blank_start]Islamic[blank_end] civilization, or the [blank_start]Dar al-Islam[blank_end]. A [blank_start]unified[blank_end] civilization seemed an unlikely prospect for the area in which Islam was born. The [blank_start]nomads[blank_end] of the Arabian peninsula (Bedouins) were [blank_start]polytheistic[blank_end] and organized by powerful [blank_start]tribal identities[blank_end]. Conversion to the [blank_start]monotheistic[blank_end] teachings of [blank_start]Muhammad[blank_end] meant that these issues were less likely to hinder [blank_start]cooperation[blank_end] between tribes. One’s ancestral bloodline—once the unifying bond within a tribe—gave way to a new loyalty based on a common faith in one god that brought individuals together regardless of their [blank_start]tribe[blank_end]. As a result, Islam facilitated the rise of empires in areas once characterized by bands of feuding nomadic tribes.

    Soon after the death of [blank_start]Mohammed[blank_end] a dispute erupted over who should be the [blank_start]leader[blank_end] of this new religion. Since the idea of another prophet was inconceivable, a "deputy" or [blank_start]Caliph[blank_end] was chosen to lead the Muslim community. Disagreement over the [blank_start]qualifications[blank_end] of the Caliph led to the split of Muslims into [blank_start]Shia and Sunni[blank_end] factions. Nevertheless, the Caliph--a leader who presides over the political, religious and military affairs of the Dar al-Islam--became a [blank_start]central feature[blank_end] of Islamic civilization for the majority of Muslims. By bringing these separate components of civilization under a single leader, the Caliphate (the office of the Caliph) had a [blank_start]unifying[blank_end] effect on Islamic civilization.
    1. Arapid
    2. BIslamic
    3. CDar al-Islam
    4. Dunified
    5. Enomads
    6. Fpolytheistic
    7. Gtribal identities
    8. Hmonotheistic
    9. IMuhammad
    10. Jcooperation
    11. Ktribe
    12. LMohammed
    13. Mleader
    14. NCaliph
    15. Oqualifications
    16. PShia and Sunni
    17. Qcentral feature
    18. Runifying
  7. 7The [blank_start]Umayyad Caliphate[blank_end] (661-750) pushed the boundaries of Islam far outside the [blank_start]Arabian[blank_end] peninsula. Umayyad armies conquered the [blank_start]Middle East[blank_end], spread across [blank_start]North Africa[blank_end], and into [blank_start]Iberia[blank_end]. Their conquests in Europe were limited to Spain by the [blank_start]Battle of Tours[blank_end] (732) in which the Franks routed the Muslim armies and turned them back across the Pyrenees Mountains. Under the Umayyads the [blank_start]Dar al-Islam[blank_end] was dominated by Arab [blank_start]military[blank_end] elites, and their [blank_start]preferential treatment[blank_end] of [blank_start]Arab Muslims[blank_end] brought them into [blank_start]conflict[blank_end] with the growing [blank_start]non-Arab[blank_end] population of [blank_start]Islamic[blank_end] civilization.[8]

    In 750 the Umayyads were overthrown by the [blank_start]Abbasids[blank_end] and a new [blank_start]Caliphate[blank_end] was established. Under the Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) a [blank_start]wider[blank_end] variety of cultural influences made their way into Islamic civilization, the most prominent of which was [blank_start]Persian[blank_end]. From the Abbasid capital of [blank_start]Baghdad[blank_end], the Caliph ruled with [blank_start]absolute authority[blank_end] which he claimed to have received directly from [blank_start]God[blank_end].[9] Rather than depend on a [blank_start]Arab military aristocracy[blank_end] like the Umayyads, the Abbasids used a [blank_start]salaried bureaucracy[blank_end]; bureaucrats could be [blank_start]promoted or dismissed[blank_end] at the whim of the caliph. They ended the [blank_start]racial policies[blank_end] of the Umayyads; Arabs were no longer [blank_start]favored[blank_end] in the administration of the caliphate and the Arab [blank_start]militias[blank_end] were replaced by a [blank_start]professional[blank_end] Abbasid army of [blank_start]paid soldiers[blank_end]. The nature of the caliph itself was dramatically transformed during the reign of the Abbasids. Rather than the "[blank_start]warrior[blank_end]" caliph of the Umayyads, the Abbasid Caliph lived in [blank_start]splendor[blank_end] and surrounded himself with wealth and [blank_start]elaborate ceremonies[blank_end]. He was an [blank_start]absolute[blank_end] ruler presiding over a [blank_start]centralized bureaucratic state[blank_end] and supported by [blank_start]military force[blank_end].[10]
    1. AUmayyad Caliphate
    2. BArabian
    3. CMiddle East
    4. DNorth Africa
    5. EIberia
    6. FBattle of Tours
    7. GDar al-Islam
    8. Hmilitary
    9. Ipreferential treatment
    10. JArab Muslims
    11. Kconflict
    12. Lnon-Arab
    13. MIslamic
    14. NAbbasids
    15. OCaliphate
    16. Pwider
    17. QPersian
    18. RBaghdad
    19. Sabsolute authority
    20. TGod
    21. UArab military aristocracy
    22. Vsalaried bureaucracy
    23. Wpromoted or dismissed
    24. Xracial policies
    25. Yfavored
    26. Zmilitias
    27. AAprofessional
    28. ABpaid soldiers
    29. ACwarrior
    30. ADsplendor
    31. AEelaborate ceremonies
    32. AFabsolute
    33. AGcentralized bureaucratic state
    34. AHmilitary force
  8. 8THE MONGOL KHANATES
    The Mongols built the [blank_start]largest[blank_end] land empire in the world, a remarkable feat considering they were [blank_start]pastoral nomads[blank_end]. Like the Muslims, Mongols had to overcome deep [blank_start]tribal[blank_end] divisions before they could be integrated into a [blank_start]large empire[blank_end]. In the culture of the Central Asian steppes, loyalties of [blank_start]kinship[blank_end] were so strong that they prevented any broad [blank_start]cooperation[blank_end] between people of [blank_start]different bloodlines[blank_end]. Like the [blank_start]Bedouins of Arabia[blank_end], [blank_start]Central Asia nomads[blank_end] seemed locked into constant [blank_start]tribal rivalries[blank_end] and warfare. [blank_start]Genghis Khan[blank_end] (1162-1227) was the man responsible for uniting these warring tribes into an empire. One of his tactics was to blur the lines between tribes by [blank_start]intermarriage[blank_end]. For example, after his defeat of the Tartars Genghis took two daughters of prominent [blank_start]Tartar aristocrats[blank_end] as his wives, and encouraged other Mongols to do the same.[11] He thus blended the Tartar bloodline with his own making [blank_start]tribal distinctions[blank_end] less relevant. So widespread was his practice of cross-contaminating tribal [blank_start]purity[blank_end] through marriage and fathering children across bloodlines that recent DNA research suggests that 16 million people today are descended from Genghis Khan.[12]

    A more important method of breaking [blank_start]tribal loyalties[blank_end] was through [blank_start]military[blank_end] organization. The most basic unit of the Mongol army was a unit of 10 men called an arban. To break the power of tribal identity, the men in each [blank_start]arban[blank_end] were purposely chosen from different [blank_start]bloodlines[blank_end]. They lived together, trained together, and fought together. In battle, members of an arban could never leave [blank_start]one of their own[blank_end] behind as missing or a captive. Seniority in the arban was determined by [blank_start]age[blank_end], just as it was in tribes; indeed, the strong bonds of [blank_start]loyalty[blank_end] that formed among members of the arban rendered the military unit a [blank_start]surrogate[blank_end] for one's tribe, the identity of which became increasingly [blank_start]irrelevant[blank_end].
    1. Alargest
    2. Bpastoral nomads
    3. Ctribal
    4. Dlarge empire
    5. Ekinship
    6. Fcooperation
    7. Gdifferent bloodlines
    8. HBedouins of Arabia
    9. Itribal rivalries
    10. JCentral Asia nomads
    11. KGenghis Khan
    12. Lintermarriage
    13. MTartar aristocrats
    14. Ntribal distinctions
    15. Opurity
    16. Ptribal loyalties
    17. Qmilitary
    18. Rarban
    19. Sbloodlines
    20. Tone of their own
    21. Uage
    22. Vloyalty
    23. Wsurrogate
    24. Xirrelevant
  9. 9The organization of the [blank_start]arban[blank_end] was projected across the entire army in multiples of [blank_start]10[blank_end]. A group of ten arbans formed an unit of 100 called a zagun, and ten of these formed mingan, or battalion, of one thousand troops; ten of these was a tumen of ten thousand soldiers. [13] [blank_start]Promotion[blank_end] up the ranks was based on [blank_start]loyalty and performance[blank_end] with no consideration of the prestige of one's [blank_start]tribe[blank_end]. [blank_start]Communication[blank_end] across the empire depended on a [blank_start]postal service[blank_end] made up of [blank_start]arrow messengers[blank_end]. These fast riders delivered communications between stations set up approximately 20 miles apart, at which point another rider would take the message to the next station until it reached its intended destination.[14]

    An [blank_start]efficient[blank_end] communication network was not the only thing that benefited from the Mongols' mastery of their [blank_start]horses[blank_end]. Their equestrian skills were most effective on the [blank_start]battle field[blank_end]. The Mongol army, which could travel up to 100 miles in a day, had a level of [blank_start]mobility[blank_end] unparalleled until modern times. [15] A Mongol soldier spent much of his day on his [blank_start]horse[blank_end], trained on his horse, used it for food, and could deliver arrows with deadly accuracy from the horse.

    [blank_start]Genghis Khan's[blank_end] armies first united the Mongol people, then began to incorporate other [blank_start]Asian[blank_end] tribes and [blank_start]Turks[blank_end] into his empire. He imposed law, called the [blank_start]Yassa[blank_end], which codified most aspects of [blank_start]politics[blank_end] and the [blank_start]daily life[blank_end] of the empire. This law granted [blank_start]religious toleration[blank_end] and [blank_start]protected trade[blank_end]. The breadth of the Empire encompassed the [blank_start]Silk Roads[blank_end] and trade began to flow again. The Mongols sacked Baghdad and ended the [blank_start]Islamic Caliphate[blank_end]. They destroyed the Seljuk Turks and paved the way for the rise of the [blank_start]Ottomans[blank_end]. They ruled Russia as a [blank_start]tributary state[blank_end]. After taking the [blank_start]Song[blank_end] Dynasty, Genghis Khan's grandson [blank_start]Kublai Khan[blank_end] established the Yuan Dynasty and ruled China directly. The Mongol Empire had a profound impact of the development of world history.
    1. Aarban
    2. B10
    3. CPromotion
    4. Dloyalty and performance
    5. Etribe
    6. FCommunication
    7. Gpostal service
    8. Harrow messengers
    9. Iefficient
    10. Jhorses
    11. Kbattle field
    12. Lmobility
    13. Mhorse
    14. NGenghis Khan's
    15. OAsian
    16. PTurks
    17. QYassa
    18. Rpolitics
    19. Sdaily life
    20. Treligious toleration
    21. Uprotected trade
    22. VSilk Roads
    23. WIslamic Caliphate
    24. XOttomans
    25. Ytributary state
    26. ZSong
    27. AAKublai Khan
  10. 10SWAHILI COAST CITY-STATES
    Not all the new political developments of this era produced [blank_start]centralized states[blank_end]. On the eastern coast of [blank_start]Africa[blank_end], trade and [blank_start]Islam[blank_end] gave rise to [blank_start]powerful[blank_end] but independent city-states that thrived on [blank_start]Indian Ocean[blank_end] commerce. Something of this region's history can be seen from its name alone: [blank_start]Swahili[blank_end] is a language that formed through the blending of [blank_start]Bantu and Arabic[blank_end]. These African city-states were profoundly affected by [blank_start]Arab merchants[blank_end] who brought Islam to east Africa thus pulling them into the activity of Indian Ocean trade.

    [blank_start]Sustained[blank_end] contact with Muslim merchants of [blank_start]Arabia[blank_end] kept the practice of Islam in these city-states relatively [blank_start]pure[blank_end]. This is in contrast to the [blank_start]syncretic[blank_end] practices found inland, which looked more like African [blank_start]traditional beliefs[blank_end] the farther one moved [blank_start]inland[blank_end] from the eastern coast. Despite the strong [blank_start]Islamic character[blank_end] of the Swahili city-states, they were [blank_start]highly tolerant[blank_end] and [blank_start]cosmopolitan[blank_end]. Because of the seasonal monsoons, at any given time these cities were occupied by many [blank_start]merchants[blank_end] of many [blank_start]faiths[blank_end] waiting for the winds to favor their departure. Thus Christian, Hindu, Confucian, Jewish and Buddhist merchants were in these cities at the same time. [blank_start]Tolerance[blank_end] was [blank_start]good[blank_end] for [blank_start]business[blank_end].

    The Swahili city-states were important points for connecting [blank_start]inland trade[blank_end] into the vast Indian Ocean network. Especially important was the city of [blank_start]Kilwa[blank_end], which was the farthest down the coast a merchant ship could sail in a typical monsoon season. For this reason it attracted [blank_start]trade[blank_end] from the southernmost part of Africa. With this outlet for [blank_start]gold and ivory[blank_end], the powerful [blank_start]Great Zimbabwe[blank_end] formed in southern Africa. Great Zimbabwe stands as a good example of an African state that developed along [blank_start]Bantu[blank_end] lines; it was out of the reach of [blank_start]Islam's influence[blank_end], unlike Ghana, Mali and Songhai to the north.     Imagen de la pregunta 10
    1. Acentralized states
    2. BAfrica
    3. CIslam
    4. Dpowerful
    5. EIndian Ocean
    6. FBantu and Arabic
    7. GSwahili
    8. HArab merchants
    9. ISustained
    10. JArabia
    11. Kpure
    12. Lsyncretic
    13. Mtraditional beliefs
    14. Ninland
    15. OIslamic character
    16. Phighly tolerant
    17. Qcosmopolitan
    18. Rmerchants
    19. Sfaiths
    20. TTolerance
    21. Ugood
    22. Vbusiness
    23. Winland trade
    24. XKilwa
    25. Ytrade
    26. Zgold and ivory
    27. AAGreat Zimbabwe
    28. ABBantu
    29. ACIslam's influence

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Descripción
AP AP World History Semster 1 Test sobre Key Concept 3.2 Continuity and Innovation of State Forms and Their Interactions, creado por Ana Hale el 15/12/2017.
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