2nd partial topics.

Reported speech
1. If we report what another person has said, we usually do not use the speaker’s exact words (direct speech), but reported (indirect) speech.
  1. Present Simple --- Past Simple. Present Continuous. ---- Past Continuous. ---Present Perfect--Past Perfect. ---Future Simple -- Would Infinitive.
Conditionals
1. They describe the result of something that might happen (in the present or future) or might have happened but didn't (in the past) .
  1. The Zero Conditional: (if + present simple, ... present simple) If you heat water to 100 degrees, it boils.
    1. --- If I am late, my father takes me to school. ----She doesn't worry if Julian stays out after school.
  2. The First Conditional: (if + present simple, ... will + infinitive) If it rains tomorrow, we'll go to the cinema.
    1. If it rains, we will stay at home. He will arrive late unless he hurries up. Simon will buy a new car, if he gets his raise.
  3. The Second Conditional: (if + past simple, ... would + infinitive) If I had a lot of money, I would travel around the world.
    1. If he studied more, he would pass the exam. I would lower taxes if I were the the Prime Minister. They would buy a new house if they won the lottery.
  4. The Third Conditional: (if + past perfect, ... would + have + past participle) If I had gone to bed early, I would have caught the train.
    1. If he had known that, he would have decided differently. Joanna would have found a new job if she had stayed in Gorzów.
Prepositions
1. Prepositions are essential to sentences because they provide additional and necessary details.
  1. ◾on ◾off ◾up to ◾along ◾across ◾as for ◾next ◾through ◾of ◾as ◾along with ◾apart from ◾about ◾around ◾according to ◾against ◾after ◾to ◾up ◾within ◾in spite of ◾at ◾out ◾behind ◾past ◾out of ◾by means of ◾between ◾before ◾beneath ◾beyond ◾beside ◾during ◾except for ◾under ◾down ◾below ◾by ◾over ◾inside ◾underneath ◾except ◾round ◾from ◾outside ◾toward ◾without ◾in addition to ◾in ◾into ◾until ◾unlike ◾in back of ◾like ◾because of ◾with ◾concerning ◾for ◾near ◾instead of ◾in front of ◾in ◾since ◾despite ◾on top of ◾throughout ◾in place of ◾onto ◾upon
    1. ◾The child quickly hid under the thick covers.◾My kite soared above the building.◾From my father◾At noon, I went to my wife’s office◾During the summer, I always spend my time playing
The passive.
1. Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action.
  1. Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column of irregular verbs)
2. When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
  1. The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence ◾the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle) ◾the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive sentence (or is dropped)
The to infinitive + ing
1. After certain verbs we use the -ing form, and after other verbs we use the infinitive. Sometimes we can use either form and there is no change in meaning. Occasionally we can use either form and there is a change in meaning.
  1. The verbs followed by -ing include enjoy, mind, stop and recommend. ------ I told him you really enjoy cooking. ---Would you mind helping me? ----- It didn't stop raining all day yesterday. -----Daisy recommends trying Alfie’s tiramisú. The negative is verb + not + -ing. ---- Imagine not having pizza! I eat it all the time. -
  2. These include decide, want, promise, plan and forget. ---She decided to go with Elliot instead. I wanted to visit Rome. ----- She promised to take me there. ---I planned to go to some real Italian restaurants. ----She didn’t forget to phone. The negative is verb + not + infinitive. ---They decided not to make pizza.
Modals
1. Can be used when we want to say how sure we are that something happened / is happening / will happen.
  1. Probabilty: We often call these 'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or 'certainty' or 'probability'. They don't use an 's' for the third person singular.They are followed directly by the infinitive of another verb (without 'to').
    1. •It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside. •I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train. •This bill can't be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!
  2. Ability: We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.
    1. •She can speak six languages. •My grandfather could play golf very well. •I can't drive
  3. Obligation and Advice: We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is necessary or unnecessary, or to give advice.
    1. •Children must do their homework. •We have to wear a uniform at work. •You should stop smoking.
  4. Permission: We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give permission. We also use modal verbs to say something is not allowed.
    1. •Could I leave early today, please? •You may not use the car tonight. •Can we swim in the lake?
  5. Habits: We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually do, or did in the past.
    1. •When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat. •John will always be late!
  6. Past Modals: past modal verbs are all used hypothetically, to talk about things that didn't really happen in the past.
Linking Words
1. They can be used to develop coherence whithin a paragraph that is linkin an idea or an argment.
  1. Sequence: We use linking words of sequence to add information and to show the order in which things happen.
    1. Firstly, I prefer the train because I can see the landscape. Secondly, I have control over my luggage, and thirdly, it is better for the environment.
  2. Result: We use linking words of result to show the results or the consequence of an action.
    1. Hector decided not to use a map; consequently, he got lost and never found his way out of the forest
  3. Example: We use linking words of example to explain something.
    1. ◾ You can do whetever you want, for example go to parties. ◾For instance, my value may be “I don´t like being hot”
  4. Emphasis: We use linking words of emphasis to show an answer with doubt
    1. ◾ In fact, now she felt nothing  ◾Indeed, why should anyone feel sorry for her?
  5. Comparison: We use linking words of comparison to show similarities and differences
    1.  ◾It was like reading an open book. ◾ Pamela danced in the festival, just as Pamela did
  6. Contrast: We use linking words of contrast to show two perspectives.
    1.  ◾Dean turned from the highway, however he had the road for himself.  ◾Living in a cold climate is diffcilut, on the other hand, there are many fun winter activities.
  7. Addition: We use linking words of addition to add information
    1. ◾He is handsome and also silly.  ◾ Furthermore he felt ordes no to be disturbed.

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	Created by Fer Lugo almost 10 years ago