Non-verbal
communication-passing
messages that do not
require the use of words
or sounds
Communication-passing
information from one
person to another
Verbal
communication-passing
messages using words
or vocal sounds
paralinguistics-vocal
features that
accompany speech
Eye
contact-When
two people look
into each
others eyes at
the same time
Posture-A non-verbal
communication signal
Closed posture-Crossed
arms and legs
Open posture-open arms and legs
Postural echo-Adopting each
others posture
Gesture-A form of non verbal
communication in which
information is conveyed by
either deliberate or
unconscious movements of
the body
Touch-information
conveyed by physical
contact
Argyle, Alkema and Gilmour
Aim-To see if tone of
voice has any effect
when interpreting a
verbal message
Method-Different groups of
participants listened to either
friendly or hostile messages
spoken in either a friendly or
hostile tone of voice.So some
heard hostile messages spoken in
a friendly tone or friendly
messages spoken in a hostile tone
Results- When participants
were asked to interpret the
messages,k it was found that
tone of voice had about five
times the effect of the verbal
message itself
Conclusion-Tone of
voice is important in
how people interpret
verbal messages
Aim-To see how
interrupting eye contact
affects conversation
Method-Pairs of participants were observed
having conversations and half of the
conversations had one participant wearing
dark classes so there was no eye contact and
the other half had no dark glasses
Results-When one of the
participants wore dark glasses,
there were more pauses and
interruptions than when dark
glasses were not worn
Conclusion-Eye contact is
important in ensuring the
smooth flow of conversation
Evaluation- High
ecological validity
Pupil Dilation-Hess
Aim-To see the effect
of pupil dilation on
emotion
Method-participants were shown
two sets of photographs of eyes and
in one set the pupils were enlarged
and in the other they were reduced
Results-Showed that participants preferred the photos
of eyes with the enlarged pupil, mainly because they
found it more attractive but couldn't explain why they
thought this
Conclusion-Pupil dilation has an unconscious but
powerful effect on emotion
Evaluation-Low ecological validity, reliable, high
demand characteristics
Postural echo-McGinley
Aim-To see
the effect of
postural
echo when
having a
conversation
Method-A confederate
approached individuals in a
social setting and had
conversations with them. In
half the confederate echoed
the posture and in the
others they did not. The
experimenter asked the
individuals after what they
thought
Results-When postural
echo was used the
people thought they
got on well with them
but when it wasn't
used the confederate
was not liked as much
and the conversation
felt awkward
Conclusion-Postural
echo gives an
unconscious
message of
friendliness
Evaluation-Reliable, high
ecological validity, natural
environment, extraneous variables
Open and closed
posture-McGinely, Lefevre
and McGinely
Aim-To see the effect of
open and closed posture
Method-a confederate
approached people and
have conversations with
them and had open
posture in half and
closed in the others then
the experimenter asked
what they thought
Results-When showing an open
posture they were seen as
friendly and attractive but seen as
unfriendly and less attractive with
a closed posture
Conclusion-The posture that
someone adopts can make a
difference to how much they are
liked
Aim-To see the effect of gestures used by
waiters and waitresses on the tipping
behaviour of customers
Method-While taking oders from customers, they were
told to either stand upright or squat down to the
customers level
Results-When they squatted down,
they received bigger tips compared
to standing upright
Conclusion-The gesture of squatting
will have an effect on tipping behaviour
Evaluation-low ecological validity, high
ecological validity, low demand
characteristics
Touch-Fisher, Rytting and Heslin
Aim-to see the effect of
touch on people's
attitudes
Method-male and female
students in a library were
handing books and for half of
them the librarian touched their
hand and for the other other
they didn't
Results-When asked, the students who were
touched were more positive towards the
library and librarian. Most didn't realise they
had been touched though.
Conclusion-touch can have an
unconscious and positive effect
Method-one at a time, participants
were asked to have a conversation with
another person who was actually a
confederate. sometimes the
confederate was of the same sex or the
opposite and the confederate sat at
difference distances and stared into the
participants eyes
Results-the participants broke eye
contact with the opposite sex
Conclusion-We prefer to have a greater amount of
personal space between ourselves and the opposite sex
during normal conversation
Evaluation-Ethical issues, low demand
characteristics, high population validity
Personality
Aim-to see if personality has an
effect on personal space
Method-Students were given
personality tests to see if
they were extroverts or
introverts. They were then
sent to an office to recieve
their college grades. The
researcher then noted where
they chose to sit
Results-introverts
sat further away
than extroverts
Conclusion-Whether
you are an introvert
or extrovert will
affect personal
space