Animal Responses

Animal Responses

a) why animals need to respond to their enviroment
1. survival
  1. avoid harmful envoiroment
  2. respond to changes in there internal enviroment
    Annotations:
    - making sure they are always optimum for enzymes to function
b) the peripheral & central nervous system
1. periphereal
  1. SENSORY NURONES
    Annotations:
    - carry information from receptor nuerones towards the central nervous system have long cytoplasmic processes that pick up information and transmit action potentials to cell body THEN AXON TO CNS
    1. CB in DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA
      1. SPINAL NERVE
  2. & MOTOR NURONES
    Annotations:
    - carry infomation from the centeral nervouse system to the effector
    1. CB IN SPINAL CHORD
      Annotations:
      - axons pass out the spinal chord and straight to the effector
      1. VENTERAL ROOT
2. centeral
  1. brain and spinal chord
    1. spinal cord
      1. neural arches
        Annotations:
        of the verteabrea. in this nerual arches...
        canal containing cerebro spinal fluid
        mechanical shocks
        provide nutrients and oxygen
        exam q
        Annotations:
        explain why CBF reduces heat of brain, high latent heat of water, cicrulation, absorbs heat
        exam q
    2. butterfly region in the center
      Annotations:
      - contains unmylinated nuerones so appears grey
      1. surronded by axons and dendrons
        Annotations:
        so they appear white as hey are mainly mylinated
    3. brain
      Annotations:
      - highly specialised region of the spinal chord
      1. crainal nerve carry nerves from brain
    4. both surrounded by meniges
      Annotations:
      - 3 membranes that HELP TO secrete cerebo spinal fluid which fills the spaces inside the brain and he spinal chord
  2. mostly INTERMEDIATE
    1. short dendrites forming synapses with many cells
    2. receive and intergrate information and then pass on AP to other nuerones
      1. excitory
        Annotations:
        causes a depolarisation of the post synaptic membrane the balance between excitory and inhibitory in all the synapses determine whether or not the action potential is passed on down its axon to another nureone
      2. inhibitory
        Annotations:
        inhibtis the depolarisation of the post synaptic membrane
3. made of neurones
  Annotations:
  - specialised calls that carry eletical impuleses in the form of action potentials around the body, sensory, motor or intermediate
4. made of gial cells
  Annotations:
  - have a variety of functions e.g. help nutrients from the blood pass to neurounes and maintain the balance of ions in the tissue fluid surrounding the brain and spinal chord. Schwann cells are types of Gial Cells
  1. shwann cells
c) Automoic and Somatic
Annotations:
- the peripheral nervouse system splits into the automic and the peripheral nervouse system
1. automic/Viscera
  Annotations:
  - self minding not under our voluntary control
  1. All internal organs
  2. smooth Muscle
    1. walls of artierols
    2. walls of the alimentary canal
  3. cardiac muscle
  4. the exocrine glands
    Annotations:
    - salivary glands
  5. MOTOR
  6. MOTOR NUERONES cell body in automic ganglia
    1. PREGANGLIANIC NUERONE
      Annotations:
      - takes infomation from the central nervouse system to the automic ganglia
      1. out of the venteral root
      2. synapse with motor nuerones
    2. axons leave the AG to synapse with organs/SM
  7. Sympathetic NS
    1. nora adrenaline
      Annotations:
      - is the transmittor substance
      1. stimulate the organs
        Annotations:
        heart to beat faster with increased pressure, the pupils dilate and the bronchi to dilate
    2. Or Acetycholine
      1. Still stimulatory
      2. sweat glands
        Annotations:
        sweat glands to produce more sweat and the erector muscles to contract
      3. erector muscles
    3. flight or flight
      Annotations:
      - directly activates target organds
      1. initatied under stress
      2. stimulates adrenal glands
        Annotations:
        causes them to secrete adrenaline and noraadrenaline
      3. not useful long term
        Annotations:
        flight or fight response can be counter productive in long term situations = negative side ffects on health
    4. Causes..
      1. sppeding of HR and BR
        increase in BP
      2. contraction of radial muscles
        exam q
        Automic ns controls
        Annotations:
        the smooth muscle in the iris
        iris has..
        Annotations:
        2 sets of muscles circular and radial
        work antagonistically
        synpathetic controls..
        Annotations:
        radial muscles = pupils open
        parasympathetic controls
        Annotations:
        the circular muscle = close pupil
        light hits retina
        signals from retina to brain
        Annotations:
        with regards to how much light is being let in
        too much light = parasymp
        Annotations:
        circular muscles contract this occurs via a reflex action
        not enough light = symp
        Annotations:
        radial muscles contract this occurs via a reflex action
      3. relaxstion of sphinchter muscle = urination
      4. defecation
      5. constriction of arterioles supplying alimentary canal
      6. exam q
        Annotations:
        describe how internal organs will function differently in a calm mammel compared to a frightened mammel: heat: Calm: rate slow/ small force. Stress: Rate fast and great force. Lungs: breathing slow/shallow stress: breathing rate fast and deep Muscles: less active / blood flow stress: more active blood flow Live: Glucose to glycogen glucose taken up Stess: Glycogen - glucose & glucose released Gut: Peristalsis / secretion / digestion blood flow to gut. streee: les peristalisis / secretions / digestion
        liver
        stressed
        Annotations:
        glycogen to glucose = glucose is released
        relaxed
        Annotations:
        glucose to glycogen, glucose is taken up
        lungs
        stressed
        Annotations:
        fast breathing rate
        relaxed
        Annotations:
        slow breathing rate
        heart
        stessed
        Annotations:
        hr increased and great force
        relaxed
        Annotations:
        hr slow and small force
        exam q
        Annotations:
        what happens when heart during excersise and heart after excersise with reference to the automic nervouse system - during excersise - nerve impulses to cardica accelerator center & impulses to heart via accelerator nerve, ref noradrenaline, impulses to adrenal glands= secrete adrenaline decrease nerve impulses to inhibitor center and from brain to heart via the decelerator nerve, acetycholine, parasympathetic, decrease heart rate
        exam q
        Annotations:
        if automic nerves cut, heart would still beat
        gut
        stressed
        Annotations:
        no peristalissis, secretions, digestion or blood flow to gut
        relaxed
        Annotations:
        more peristalsis, more digestion, more secretion, blood flow to the gut occouring
        muscle
        stressed
        Annotations:
        increase blood flow to muscles
        relaxed
        Annotations:
        less blood flow to muscles
        stomach
        Annotations:
        gastric juices, involuntary,tast receptors, messages from receptors to cns, automic, acetycholine, parasympathetic and sympathetic, vagus nerve
  8. Parasympatheic NS
    1. rest and digest
      1. can have stimulatory effect also
    2. brain, top & base of sc
    3. cns to effector target organ NO GANGLIA
      1. many neaurones in vagus nerve
        Annotations:
        the cranial nerve
        carries impulses to thorax and abdomen
    4. acetycholine
      1. inhitory effect
2. somatic
  Annotations:
  - all sensory and motor nuerones from and to the skeletal muscles, involved conscious activities
  1. skeletal mucles
  2. MOTOR AND SENSORY
  3. cns - skeletal muscle
d) the brain
1. Cerebrum
  Annotations:
  - largest part of the brain split into two hemisphers, cerable cortex is the largest part, two hemispheres connected by the corpus cullosum. VISION HEARING LEARNING AND THINKING
  1. cerebal cortex = characteristics that make us human
    Annotations:
    - speech, emotion, language , logical though and decision making
    1. recieves infomation from all the sense organs
      Annotations:
      - such as the eyes and the ears
      1. Different parts of the body to different sides of the brain
        Annotations:
        nerve impulses from the right side of our body go to the left cerebal hemisphere and NI from the left side of our body go to the right hemisphere
    2. 1. Impulses go to PRIMARY SENSORY AREAS
      Annotations:
      - 1st recieve nerve impulses from the sense organs
      1. 2. NI then go to ASSOCIATION AREAS
        Annotations:
        infomation from the primary sensory areas and other parts of the brain are sent to the association areas and are intergrated together
        NI then go to the motor areas
        Annotations:
        where nerve impulses are generated and sent to the effectors
        Large Assosiation area is Parietal, Temporal and Occipital Lobes
        where different parts of our body are
        Association area in frontal lobe
        Planning actions and movement
        assosation area = Limbic System
        Annotations:
        memory and emotions
        Amygdala
        Coordinates the actions of the automic and the endocrine systems
        emotions
        hippocampus
        Memeory
        Association areas in the left
        Berocas area
        Production of language in speaking and writing
        Wernickes area
        Understanding language
        Right hem
        parietal Lobe
        visualise objects in 3D and recognise faces
2. Cerebellum
  1. folded surface
  2. infomation from stretch receptors in muscles, ears, eyes & other parts of brain
    1. info intergrated to used to coordinate the timing and pattern of skeletal musceles
      1. responsible for balance, coordination, eye movement and fine manipulation
  3. EXAM Q
    Annotations:
    - functions; posture, balance, coordination of skeletal muscles
3. Medulla Oblongata
  1. link between the brain and the spinal chord
  2. regulates and controls involuntary movments
    1. breathing
    2. heart rate
    3. exam q
      Annotations:
      - funtions; regulate hr, circulaution, swallowing, breathing rate, bp, peristalisis
4. Hypothalamus
  1. regulates the autonomic NS
  2. control the secretion of hormones from the pit gland
    1. effects the controls of many homeostatic processes
      1. temp reg
      2. water content in body fluids
    2. produces hormones
  3. exam q
    Annotations:
    - the hypothalamus constantly monitos and regulates the concentration of hormones in the blood. outline how the hypothalamus reulates the concentration of hormones in the blood inhibits output of trophic hormones by pituitary gland; which inhibits output of hormones by endocrine glands; blood hormone concentration falls to normal levels; ref. negative feedback; ORA
5. exam q
  Annotations:
  - alzehimers and the brain: - disrupt cell metabolism -shriveled brain cells - nuerones die slowly - less brain cells - shorter/fewer dendrites -trangels - enlarged ventricles -plaques -less nuerotransmittor changes: -social skills -language -personality change -inability to learn - memory poor -difficulty speaking -loss of control of voluntary muscles - anxiety -aggression
e) Brain & NS co ord muscles
1. 1. recieves sensory info
  1. 2, Decideds on necessary actions
    1. 3. sends nerve implulses along nuerones to skeletal muscles to C/R
f) joints and elbows
1. muscles
  Annotations:
  - specialised tissue that can contract and relax using energy need to respire arerbically to create the energy, when contracts is excerts force in a particular direction pulling on particular body parts, muscles make sure their behaveouir is coordinated with all the other muscles muscles are attatched to bones by tendons and ligaments attatch bone to bonea
2. elbow
  Annotations:
  - catilage lines joints, ligament large circle, synovial membrance ontop of ligament and synovial fluid fills the space between the joint
  1. synovial joint
    Annotations:
    - adapted to allow smooth movement between two bones, lined with a synoival membrance which secretes synovial fluid which lubricates the joint
  2. hinge joint
    Annotations:
    - allowing movement in one plane
  3. biceps and triceps
    Annotations:
    - called this due to the number of tendons that attach them to the humerus and scarpulla
    1. antag
      Annotations:
      - antagonoistic contraction of one causes the relaxation of another
      1. bicep contracts pulls ulna and radius closer to the scapula
        tricep relax it pulls ulna and radius away from the scapula
        exam q
        bicep is...
        Annotations:
        flexer muscle = bend arm
        tricep is a..
        Annotations:
        extensior muscle = straighten arm
        humerus acts as..
        Annotations:
        an achor
      2. can act as steadying force
        Annotations:
        when one contracts the ther does aswell to make sure a smooth movement
  4. exam q
    Annotations:
    - explain the role of cartilage and synovial fluid: lubrication of the joint, reduce friction, shock absorber, provide nutrients to cartilage cells
g)sliding filment model
1. filaments
  Annotations:
  - parrele groups of thin filaments lie between groups of thin ones made of protein
  1. myofibrils
    1. muscle fibres
      1. syncitium
        Annotations:
        many nuclei
      2. sarcolemma
        Annotations:
        plasma membrane
        T tubules
        Annotations:
        deep infoldings. help spread electircal impulsesthroughout the sarcoplasm so they reach all the muscle fibres
        sarcoplasmic reticulum
        Annotations:
        internal membrance run through the sarcoplas, they store and release calcium ions thats are needed for muscle contraction
      3. mito
        Annotations:
        huge amounts in muscle fibres to produce atp that is needed for muscle contraction
      4. multinucleate
        Annotations:
        have many nuclei
  2. thick = myosin
    1. A bands
      1. exam q
        Annotations:
        stays the same during contracting does not shorten
    2. H band = only myosin
      1. exam q
        Annotations:
        shortens during contraction
    3. bind to m band
    4. head and a tail
      Annotations:
      - tails bind to m line and heads away from m line
      1. lie in bundels
      2. hinged
    5. fiborus
    6. 2x binding sites on head
      Annotations:
      - one for atp and one for actin
  3. thin = actin
    1. I Bands
      1. exam q
        Annotations:
        shortens during contraction
    2. bind to z band
      1. between two z = sacromere
    3. gobular
    4. many actin molecules bind = long chain
      1. two chains twist around = actin filament
      2. topomyosin and troponin
        Annotations:
        also intrevals in filament at regular intervals. troponin is large and looks like sperm, tropomyosin is small and thin like thread
        tropomyosin blocks binding site for myosin
        Annotations:
        preventing muscle contraction
      3. one binding site
        Annotations:
        for myosin called the actin myosin binding site
2. contraction
  Annotations:
  - triggered by an action potential
  1. troponin changes shape causeing the movment of tropomyosin
    Annotations:
    - change shape because calcium bind to the toponin, action potential triggers the release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulim, troponin chnages shape pulling tropomyosin from binding site on the actin molecule exposing the actin myosin binding site. when relaxed they cover the binding site on actin for myosin preventing contraction
    1. myosin head can bind to myosin actin binding site
      Annotations:
      - forming a x bridge between the two filaments called an actin myosin x bridge. release adp and pi - atpase
      1. myosin head tilts
        Annotations:
        MARK SCHEME; ATP ATTATCHES TO MYOSIN HEAD RESULTING IN THE HYDROLYSIS OF ATP SO THE HEAD TILTS energy used to do this is caused by calcium activating the atpase enzymes which breaks down atp pulling the actin filament along towards the center of the sacromere
        myosin head hydrolyses atp = energy to force the head to let go of actin
        Annotations:
        atp is attatched to myosin head and acts as atpase. atp hydrolysed to break bridge
        myosin filament move back but actin does not so myosin head binds to different actin site
        Annotations:
        a different actin site further along the filament
        shortening sacromere
  2. relaxatoin
    Annotations:
    - calium ions leave their binding site and are collected back into the endoplasmic reticulum via active transport troponin move back to shape and tropomyosin move block binding site
  3. exam q
    Annotations:
    - constant muscle contraction can produces toxins, explain why these may be fatal; constant contraction, diffuculty digesting, difficulty breathing due to rib cage contracted
h) ATP
1. exam q
  Annotations:
  - less mitochondria = less respiration, less atp produced for energy, slow metabolism, low body temperature
2. aerobic & ana respiration
  Annotations:
  - aero: oxidative phos in the mito & atp = creatine ana: glycolysis but can cause lactate to build up in the muscles in the cytoplasm
3. small store in muscle
  Annotations:
  - fibres but this is quickly used up
4. creatine phosphate/pcr
  Annotations:
  - stored in their cytoplasm phosphate group can be removed from creatine phosphate molecule and combined with adp = atp and creatine. later when demand slowed down atp used from resipariotion can be combined with creatine = creatine phosphate and adp
  1. creatinine in urine
    Annotations:
    - if no spare atp to regenerate the creatine phosphate
  2. phosphorylate adp
  3. stored in cells
  4. anarobic/shorterm
    Annotations:
    - does not form lactic acid
5. exam q
  Annotations:
  - why are mitochondria essential fpr the transmission of impulses across the synaptic cleft; active transport of calcium ions into the synapse, enable movement of vesicles to postsynaptic membrane, exocytosis, atp produces, na and k pump maintain gradient, acetycholine formation
  - why are mito necessary for muscular contraction; atp attatcges to myosin head, hydrolses atp. myosin head tilts = shorten sacromere, atp required for the detatchment of myosin from actin, calcium pump in sacroplasmic reticulum, synthesis of pro
i) synapses and nureomj
1. neuromuscular juctions
  Annotations:
  - action potential causes uptake of atp, ca2 = vesicles containing acetycholine to fuse to presynaptic membrane, diffuses across syn cleft, bind with receptos on sarcolemma = sodium into the sarcolemma through channels = depolar and action potentials down t tubules calcium channels open in spr bind to troponin and change its shpae moving tropmyosin
  1. acetycholine
    1. exam q
      Annotations:
      - explain how a drug could inhibit acertycholinerase similar shape, binds to and enters active site, prevents ace entering, competitive
    2. exam q
      Annotations:
      - people with alzheimers disease were treated with a drug that inhibited acetylcholinesterase this improved there short term memory suggest how the drug improves memory prevents ach break down= bind to post membrance and depolarise it and activate the memory circuit
  2. postsym = sarcolemma/muscle
  3. nicotinic cholinergenic receptors
  4. more post synaptic receptors
  5. clefts on memb
  6. causes..
    Annotations:
    - contraction, always
  7. ache removes neuro trans
2. synapses
  Annotations:
  - BOTH: action potential trigger
  1. variouse n.t
  2. postsym = other synapse or axon
  3. variouse receptors
  4. less postsynaptic receptors
    1. exam q
      Annotations:
      - outline what happens in the membrane of a sensory neurone in response to pressure distortion, sodium gates open sodium ions enter and depolarises receptor potential, threshold, action potentials when reach threshold
  5. smooth post memb
  6. causes..
    Annotations:
    - if an action potential is passed on to the next neurone or not

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	Created by lauratyley almost 11 years ago