Development Theories in Higher Education

1. Erickson's Identity Development Theory

   Annotations:

   • First 4 stages focus on Childhood. 5th is Turning Point. 6-8 are adulthood Can only achieve the next stage by internal and external development
   • Stage One: Basic Trust versus Mistrust Stage Two: Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt Stage Three: Initiative versus Guilt Stage Four: Industry versus Inferiority Stage Five: Identity versus Identity Diffusion Stage Six: Intimacy versus Isolation Stage Seven: Generativity versus Stagnation Stage Eight: Integrity versus Despair
2. Marcia's Ego Identity Theory

   Annotations:

   • He found the young adult particularly important because often times students will have a crisis of identity. THE ONE TO REMEMBER ABOUT COLLEGE STUDENTS.
   • Four Identity statuses or ways of handling crisis and commitment. Not progressive OR permanent.
   • 1. Foreclosure (No Crisis/Commitment) 2. Moratorium (Crisis/No Commitment) 3. Identity Achievement (Crisis/Commitment) 4. Diffusion (No Crisis/No Commitment) - The least healthy - the students we should worry about the most
3. Chickering
   1. Chickering's Educationally Influential Environments

      Annotations:

      • Seven Key Influences: 1. Institutional Objectives 2. Institutional Size 3. Student-Faculty Relationships 4. Curriculum 5. Teaching 6. Frienships & Student Communities 7. Student Development Programs and Services
   2. Chickering's Developmental Vectors

      Annotations:

      • Seven Vectors: 1. Developing Competence 2. Managing Emotions 3. Moving Through Autonomy toward Interdependence 4. Developing Mature Interpersonal Relationships 5. Establishing Identity 6. Developing Purpose 7. Developing Integrity

1. Carol Gilligan (Theory of Women's Moral Development)

   Annotations:

   • The central tenet of Gilligan's care orientation is that for some individuals, often women, relationships with others carry equal weight with self-care when making moral decisions. (ch15 p9)
   • 3 Levels/2 Transitions: Level 1: Orientation to Individual SurvivalFirst Transition: From Selfishness to ResponsibilityLevel 2: Goodness as Self-SacrificeSecond Transition: From Goodness to TruthLevel 3: The morality of Nonviolence
2. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

   Annotations:

   • “the transformations that occur in a person's form or structure of thought” (Kohlberg & Hersh, 1977, p. 54) - Figuring out what is right and wrong
   • 6 Stages (Grouped Into 3 Levels): Level 1 (Preconventional)Stage 1. Heteronomous MoralityStage 2. Individualistic, Instrumental Morality Level 2 (Conventional)Stage 3. Interpersonally Normative MoralityStage 4. Social System Morality Level 3 (Postconventional)Stage 5. Human Rights and Social Welfare MoralityStage 6. Morality of Universalizable, Reversible, and Prescriptive General Ethical Principles
3. Rest's Moral Development Theory

   Annotations:

   • Moral Sensitivity, Moral Motivation, & Moral Action: 1. In relation to another person - seeing a moral dilemma outside of yourself and figuring out alternatives2. Deciding to follow a moral path.3. Carrying out a moral plan.
   • 6 Steps Re-defined as 3 "Schemas": Personal Interest Schema - Stage 1: Obedience (“Do what you're told.”)Stage 2: Instrumental egoism and simple exchange (“Let's make a deal.”) Maintaining Norms Schema - Stage 3: Interpersonal concordance (“Be considerate, nice, and kind, and you'll get alongwith people.”)Stage 4: Law and duty to the social order (“Everyone in society is obligated and protectedby the law.”) Postconventional Schema - Stage 5: Societal consensus (“You are obligated by whatever arrangements are agreed toby due process procedures.”)Stage 6: Non-arbitrary social cooperation (“How rational and impartial people wouldorganize cooperation is “moral.”)” (Rest, 1979a, pp. 22–23)
   • A person can be working in different "schemas" at the same time. They do not have to work through hard "stages" in a certain order.

1. Perry's Theory of Intellectual and Ethical Development

   Annotations:

   • Three Concepts: Dualism, Multiplicity, Relativism
   • Nine static "positions" with development happening in between
   • 9 positions are grouped into 4 categories: 1. Dualism/Received Knowledge 2. Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge 3. Relativism/Procedural Knowledge 4. Commitment/Constructed Knowledge
2. Belenky, Clinchy, Goldberger, and Tarule's Women's Ways of Knowing

   Annotations:

   • 5 Perspectives: 1. silence 2. received knowledge 3. subjective knowledge 4. procedural knowledge 5. constructed knowledge
   • for women, the development of voice, mind, and self are "intricately intertwined"
3. King and Kitchener's Reflective Judgment Model

   Annotations:

   • 7 stages clustered into 3 types: pre-reflective thinking, quasi-reflective thinking, reflective thinking
   • pre-reflective thinkers: do not realize that knowledge is uncertain. quasi-reflective thinkers: realize problems and uncertainty but have trouble drawing reasoned conclusions reflective thinkers:view knowledge in relation to context, make judgments on relevant data, open to new information and reevaluation

1. Fowler's Theory of Faith Development

   Annotations:

   • Faith Development Endings - Neutral Zone - Beginnings
   • Fowler interviewed a large amount of people all at one time (not longitudinal) - from young people up to people in their 80s and 90s.
   • Lifespan Development & Vocation: Vocation is about a sense of purpose - your role in life - not just a career - and is determined to an extent by your faith community
   • Pre-Stage 1: Primal Faith (infancy) Stage 1: Intuitive-projective Faith (toddler age) Stage 2: Mythic-literal Faith (elementary age) Stage 3: Synthetic-conventional Faith (early adolesence) Stage 4: Individuative-reflective Faith (young adulthood) Stage 5: Conjunctive Faith (mid-life) Stage 6: Universalizing Faith (may not actually exist)
2. Parks's Theory of Faith Development

   Annotations:

   • Dynamic and Multidimensional The three forms of development are "interwoven to form a unified whole"
   • Forms of Dependence: 1.Dependent/counterdependent2. Fragile Inner-dependence3. Confident Inner-dependence4. Interdependence
   • Forms of Knowing: 1. Authority-bound2. Unqualified Relativism3. Probing Commitment4. Tested Commitment5. Convictional Commitment
   • Forms on Community: 1. Conventional community2. Diffuse community3. Mentoring community4. Self-selected group5. Open to the other
3. Astin, Astin, & Lindholm's Spiritual & Religious Measures

   Annotations:

   • CSBV (College Students' Beliefs & Values) Studies: Study 1. 2003 - "used to develop constructs to measure spirituality and religion" Studies 2-3. 2004 and 2007 - "to capture longitudinal data to assess changes in spirituality and religion among students during their first three years of college."
   1. Measures of Spirituality

      Annotations:

      • 1. Spiritual Quest  2. Equanimity 3. Ethic of Caring 4. Charitable Involvement 5. Ecumenical Worldview
   2. Measures of Religiousness

      Annotations:

      • 1. Religious Commitment 2. Religious Engagement 3. Religious/Social Conservatism 4. Religious Struggle 5. Religious Skepticism
4. Smith's Model of Atheist Identity Development

   Annotations:

   • Four Components: 1. The starting point: the ubiquity of theism2. Questioning theism3. Rejecting theism4. "Coming out" atheist

Annotations:

• Self Authorship is shaped by: -beliefs -identity -social relations -growth or transformation -to be self aware

1. Kegan's Theory of Evolution of Consciousness

   Annotations:

   • Kegan "saw the process of development as an effort to resolve the tension between a desire for differentiation and an equally powerful desire to be immersed in one's surroundings" Ch16 p2 Continual shifts from periods of stability to periods of instability
   • "The holding environment has two functions: supporting individuals in their current stage of development and encouraging movement to the next evolutionary truce." p2
   • 6 Orders of Development: Order 0: Newborn - 18 months, "living in an objectless world, a world in which everything sensed is taken to be an extension of the infant" Order 1: Around age 2, children are aware of their reflexes and realize objects are independent from themselves Order 2: Instrumental Mind - "durable categories" are constructed such as "classifications of objects, or ideas with specific characteristics" Order 3: Socialized Mind - "cross-categorical thinking", a person is able to connect one durable category to another Order 4: Self-Authoring Mind, the ability to "generalize across abstractions" which is also labeled as "systems of thinking" Order 5: Self-Transforming Mind, generally individuals never reach this stage before the age of 40, the ability to see beyond themselves, stages, others and systems to understand how "all people and systems are interconnect[ed]"
2. Baxter Magolda's Self-Authorship Theory

   Annotations:

   • 6 Guiding Assumptions 1. Ways of knowing and patterns within them are socially constructed 2. Ways of knowing can best be examined using naturalistic inquiry 3. Students' use of reasoning patterns is fluid 4. Patterns are related to, but not dictated by, gender 5. Student stories are context-bound 6. Ways of knowing appear as "patterns" to "make sense of experience but stop short of characterizing it in static and generalizable ways"
   • Trusting your internal voice Building your internal foundations Securing your internal commitments
   • 4 Phases: Phase 1: Following FormulasPhase 2: CrossroadsPhase 3: Becoming the Author of One's LifePhase 4: Internal Foundation
   • Within each phase she looked at cognitive development "how do I know", intrapersonal development "who am I", and interpersonal development "how we construct relationships"

Annotations:

• The ADA provided this definition: the term “disability” means, with respect to an individual - (A) a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the major life activities of such individual; (B) a record of such an impairment; or (C) being regarded as having such an impairment (ADA 42 U.S. C. Sec. 12111, 1990)
• Further, a college student with a disability is a postsecondary student with a disability who, with or without reasonable modifications to rules, policies or practices, the removal of architectural, communication, or transportation barriers, or the provision of auxiliary aids and services, meets the essential eligibility requirements for the receipt of services of the participation in programs or activities provided by a public entity. (ADA 42 U.S. C. Sec. 12111, 1990)

1. Johnstone's 6 Categories of Disability Identity

   Annotations:

   • 1. Externally Ascribed, Disempowering Identities 2. Overcompensating Identities 3. Identities that Shift the Focus Away from Disability 4. Empowering Identities 5. Complex Identities 6. Common Identity
   • Not a stage Model - Just a way that people with disabilities relate to the world
2. Davidson & Henderson's 4 Repertoires

   Annotations:

   • Offer four “sense-making discourse clusters, or repertoires” 1. Keeping Safe 2. Qualified Deception 3. Like/As Resistance 4. Education
   • Based research on students on the Autism Spectrum. Relate to the processes through which students with disabilities may elect to express their identities, particularly if those identities are not immediately visible
3. Gibson's Disability Identity Model

   Annotations:

   • Stage 1: Passive Awareness - Individual medical needs not met, has no role model Stage 2: Realization - begin to see themselves as having a disability Stage 3: Acceptance (similar to stages in racial and other minority identity models) - understand their differences in a positive way
   • “identity development of persons with disabilities can be fluid” (p. 8). She also noted that individuals may revert from Stage 3 to Stage 2 under circumstances that trigger anger (“Why me?”).
4. Forber-Pratt & Aragon's Model

   Annotations:

   • Developmental trajectory into disability culture: Stage 1: Acceptance Phase Stage 2: Relationship Phase Stage 3: Adoption Phase Stage 4: Giving Back to the Community Phase
   • Focused on the 3 core values of disability culture 1. social justice 2. 3.

Annotations:

• Schlossberg - development happens in the transitions one goes through during their life
• A transition affects a person's development at different levels depending on whether or not it is anticipated and how much effect it has on their daily life
• Situation, Self, Support, and Strategies all affect how someone will move in, through, and out of a transition.
• People have different assets and liabilities during different points in their lives, causing them to go through transitions differently each time.

Annotations:

• Learning occurs through resolution of conflicts - Can be applied to every single theory

Annotations:

• Social Class encompasses income, wealth, property ownership, job status, education, skills, or power in the economy
• 3 Social Class identity Categories in Higher Education 1. First Generation 2. Low-income, Poor students and Working-class students 3. Middle-class Students and Upper-Class/Affluent Students

1. Bourdieu's Theory of Social Reproduction

   Annotations:

   • Education is used by the dominant race/social class to legitimize their dominance - because they are knowledgeable and educated, not because of their status
   • Field: The arenas of life in which people "play the game" Habitus: One's understanding of how to "follow the rules" of the game Capital: Resources Available to people in different social classes (Economic, Cultural, and Social)
2. Yosso's Community Cultural Wealth Model

   Annotations:

   • Six forms of capital that compose community cultural wealth: 1. Aspirational Capital - remains hopeful and optimistic despite obsticals being present 2. Linguistic Capital - communicate in one or more languages 3. Familial Capital - knowledge individuals gain through interaction with immediate and extended family 4. Social Capital - networks of people and commmunity resources which support mechanisms for students 5. Navigational Capital - skill set that students use to traverse diverse institutional settings, particularly those that are unwelcoming due to oppressive structures 6. Resistant Capital - knowledge and skills fostered through oppositional behavior that challenges equality

1. Sue & Sue RCID Model

   Annotations:

   • Racial and Cultural Identity Development Model 1. Conformity 2. Dissonance 3. Resistance & Immersion 4. Introspection 5. Synergistic Articulation & Awareness
2. Black Identity Development

   Annotations:

   • Cross & Fhagen-Smith's Model of Black Identity Development: Nigrescence A - a process in whcih individuals develop a Black identity resulting from "formative socialization experiences"Nigrescence B - Black people who are not socialized toward Blackness or who have not formed a healthy Black identity usually experience a conversion during adulthoodNigrescence C - an expansion or modification of Black identity throughout adulthood
   • Sector One: Infancy and Childhood in Early Black Identity Development Sector Two: Preadolescence Sector Three: Adolescence Sector Four: Early Adulthood Sector Five: Adult Nigrescence Sector Six: Nigrescence Recycling
3. Latinx Identity Development

   Annotations:

   • Fermdan & Gallego's Model of Latinx Ethnoracial Orientations: Six Orientations1. White-Identified2. Undifferentiated/Denial3. Latino as Other4. Subgroup-identified5. Latino-identified6. Latino-integrated
4. Asian American Identity Development

   Annotations:

   • Kim's Asian American Identity Development Model Five Stages of Perception1. Ethnic Awareness2. White Identification3. Awakening to Social Political Consciousness4. Redirection to Asian American Consciousness5. Incorporation
5. Phinney's Model of Ethnic Identity Development

   Annotations:

   • 3 stage, linear model of ethnic Identity
   • Stage 1: Unexamined Ethnic Identity (diffusion-foreclosure) Stage 2: Ethnic Identity Search/Moratorium Stage 3: Ethnic Identity Achievement
6. Torres's Bicultural Orientation Model

   Annotations:

   • Study of Latino students' ethnic identity development during their first two years of college
   • Three Influences: 1. Environment where the student grew up 2. Family influence and generational status 3. Self-perception and status in society
   • Two processes that can signal change in a students' ethnic identity: 1. Cultural Dissonance 2. Changes in Relationships
7. White Identity Development

   Annotations:

   • Rowe, Bennett, and Atkinson's White Racial Consciousness Model: Unachieved White Racial Consciousness Attitude Types:1. Avoidant2. Dependent3. Dissonant
   • Helm's Model of White Identity Development: 1. Abandonment of Racism2. Evolution of a Non-Racist Identity