Challenging 'Jim Crow'

1. protest groups worked to overturn segregation, enfranchise black citizens and confront racism.

1. 1945-55 African Americans developed the tactics of direct action that would be so successful in late 1950s and early 1960s
2. 1945-55, NAACP organised series of protests in Louisiana e.g. in 1947 NAACP and supporters picketed New Orleans' 4 biggest department stores for refusing to allow back customers to try on hats.
   1. 1951, NAACP used same tactic in town Alexandra in protest at the fact that the local black school would close during cotton harvest so that the black children could work in the fields.
   2. 1953, NAACP organised a boycott of a newly built school in Lafayette, protesting that its facilities were obviously inferior to those enjoyed at the local white school.
3. The NAACP was not the only group involved in direct action, in the 40s and 50s other groups were also active: United Defence League (UDL), Committee on Negro Organization (CNO), Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) and Congress of Racial Equality (CORE).
   1. June 1953, UDL organised a week-long bus boycott in Louisiana's capital Baton Rouge. Boycott accompanied by 'Operation Free Lift', a car pooling scheme which transported African Americans around the city in over 100 private cars.
   2. 1950-1957, CNO organised a voter registration campaign in the southern state of Arkansas.
   3. CORE's Journey of Reconciliation 1947: Morgan V. Virginia ruled segregated interstate transport illegal, however de jure change did not lead to de facto. 1947, team of 16 CORE (8 white 8 black) activists planned to travel by bus from northern states to the southern states. Objective to drew public attention to fact many bus companies ignoring case ruling. Started 9 April 1947 and lasted for two weeks. Black sat in white areas, white sat in black. Campaign proved bus companies in south were ignoring ruling. Resulted in arrests of 12 CORE members. Failed to force south (e.g. North Carolina) to desegregate.

1. CNO's Arkansas-based voter registration campaign, increased proportion of black voters from 1.5% in 1940 to 17.3% in 1947
2. NAACP's lynching investigation squad set up in 1946, special unit of lawyers and investigators who would visit lynching scenes, collect evidence and mount court cases to bring perpetrators to justice. Reason why lynching was on the decline by 1955.
3. CORE's journey of reconciliation failed to force bus companies to desegregate.
4. UDL's bus boycott failed as Baton Rouge's buses remained segregated and was too short to attract any media attention or to hurt bus companies finances.
5. AO2: Failures had positive consequences, later campaigns would learn from UDL's experience and organise more effectively. Boycott did involve the black community of an entire city in protest, increasing confidence of blacks and showed possible to stand against segregation.

Annotations:

• Best known for campaigning court cases, however participated in non-violent direct action and created organisations such as Louisiana Progressive Voters League (subsection of NAACP)

1. Decade after WW2 has been described as the 'Golden years of the NAACP'

   Annotations:

   • Operated a three-fold strategy to challenge segregation in South: 1) Took 'Jim Crow' laws to court by appealing to 14th and 15th Amendment 2) Put pressure on politicians in Washington 3) Organised popular resistance to racism in the South
2. Founded 1909 and headed by W.E.B. DuBois. NAACP provided funds and experienced lawyers (Thurgood Marshall) in order to support the court cases of individual black men and women who were prepared to take authorities to court.

   Annotations:

   • Between 1939-42 membership increased from 50,000 to 450,000
3. Take cases to supreme court when the government has acted in a way that infringes individuals constitutional rights
4. Smith V. Allwright 1944-1950: concerned the voting rights of black people in Texas. Black people excluded from primary elections. Significant as Texas was a Democratic stronghold so whoever won the Democratic primary would win the Congressional election. 1944 Lonnie E. Smith challenged this and went to Supreme Court with NAACP backing. Case ruled Texan white primary was illegal because all citizens had right to vote according to 15th Amendment. The case outlawed all-white primaries throughout America.
5. Morgan V. Virginia 1946: challenged segregation on interstate bus services. 1944 Irene Morgan was fined $100 for refusing to give up her seat to a white man. Morgan argued segregation on interstate transport violated her constitutional rights. Took her case to Supreme Court, with back of NAACP chief lawyer Thurgood Marshall. 1946 Supreme Court ruled segregation on interstate buses was illegal.