Flashcards
Chapter 10-15
Flashcards do conjunto (38)
- 1What is culture?• Culture binds together a group of people
• Culture according to Shein: a shared set of values, beliefs, attitudes and basic assumptions on reality and the group itself that has developed through interaction and exposure to specific problems and challenges as well as successes.
• Cultures always evolve through current and future new experiences and reinterpretations of the shared set of assumptions within a given group. - 2Culture as a variable and a root metaphor- A variable: culture is manageable and ought to be managed in order to align employees’ behaviors and attitudes with the dominant corporate culture. Leaders throughout the organization have been given the key role of cultural change agents and cultural enforces, creating, maintaining and changing organizational culture to improve their overall performance.
- A root metaphor: approaches organizations as naturally evolving and unmanageable cultures in their own right and as systems of common symbols and meanings. Leadership is equally seen as a symbolic activity, engaging in sense- and meaning-making and shaping followers’ beliefs, values and behaviors. - 3ScheinCritique of the model would argue that seeing organizational culture in such a determinate way is overly simplistic and that membership in other cultural groups influence employees as much as the organizational culture.
Alvesson stresses that follower’s views, values and behaviors are hardly only of mainly formed by their boss but by societal, industrial, occupational, generational cultures, by material work situation, by group interaction etc. Alvesson further stresses the symbolic nature of leadership and the relational influence of a leader within and on a group’s sense-making process of reality and their culture. - 4Schein on Key Leadership Roles
- 5Social identity theory and leadership• Haslam: leadership is intimately bound up with the shared concerns of followers’ and ‘issues relating to the social identity that they share’ where the leader’s central concern is not only one of embracing the shared social identity but also one of shaping and defining said social identity.
• As a group’s shared social identity may not always align with the organization’s, it could further be seen to be the leader’s role to nurture a group’s shared value set that does align with the organization. - 6Hofstede’s cultural dimensions- Power distance
- Individualism versus collectivism
- masculinity versus femininity
- uncertainty avoidance
- time horizon - 7Emic Researchstudying a phenomenon within its local context and through the lens of natives of the local culture, e.g. in-depth studies of the relevance, form and meaning of leadership in a local culture.
• Draws on anthropological methods of ethnographies, observations and in-depth interviews to engage with people’s understanding and interpretations of culture, and is hence more closely aligns with the root metaphor approach to culture as it treats culture as complex, naturally evolving and uncontrollable. - 8The Globe Project• Aim: to determine the extent to which the practices and values of business leadership are universal and the extent to which they are specific to just a few societies
Critique centre on:
• The limitations of the simplistic conceptualizations of culture that Hofstede and the GLOBE project have adopted
• The resulting misrepresentation of specific cultures through this etic, cross-cultural approach and its negative implications of the perpetuation of stereotypes.
• The lack of truly representative sampling and the oversampling of middle managers
• The questionnaire as an inferior methodological tool for cultural studies and generally explorative studies and its ignorance of the symbolic, cultural meaning carried by language. - 9Language DifferencesLanguages is a transmitter of meaning is a product of historical, social interaction that is hence unique and specific to individuals and social groups.
Due to the cultural meaning imbued in the language the questionnaire is originally written in, it is from the start value-laden rather than scientifically neutral. - 10The Wordly MindsetThe wordly mindset focused particularly on manager’s ability to manage the context through being aware of his/her own value set, ethical code, religious beliefs and those of others around him/her. The worldly mindset went beyond stereotypes and was clearly concerns with the individual and understanding in depth that individual’s background, present and future in order to understand their behaviors and actions in context.
In critical reflections on the dangers of taking western concepts and imposing them on other cultures, we must equally be careful not to take alternative wisdoms at face value and try to transfer them into western contexts. We need to both understand leadership in local context and leadership across the globe. - 11Leadership development should have three strategic principleso Leadership development must be driven from the top
o Leadership development supports and drives the business
o A leadership model must be culturally attuned - 12Furnham (2010) suggests the following are the main factors in developing leaderso Early work experience which reveals likes and dislikes, interests, abilities and talents
o The influence of other people, usually immediate bosses, who are positive or negative role models
o Short-term assignments, such as projects, which provide opportunities for new experiences and learning
o The first big assignment, the first promotion or a foreign posting
o Hardships, which provide learning, coping in a crisis
o Formal management and leadership development, such as 360-degree feedback and coaching - 13What constitutes a positive learning environment?Environments where innovation is supported, cultural communication competence is encouraged and this and the facilitation of high-quality and diverse relationships are both important to leadership development.
• Scandura and Lankau also highlight the importance of practices in leadership development that foster social capital, such as networking, mentoring and job assignments. - 14The contribution of arts-based methods to the development of managers and leaders• Skills transfer – learning artistic skills that can be applied to an organization setting
• Projective technique – accessing inner thoughts and feelings
• Illustration of essence – apprehending the essence of a concept, situation, tacit knowledge
• Making – deeper experience of personal presence and connection to counteract feelings of disconnection and fragmentation among leaders - 15IdentityLeaders are largely portrayed as transcendental, perfect beings and also masculine, competitive, aggressive, controlling and self-reliant individuals. Within leadership development programmes and processes within organizations managers are increasingly asked to not just fulfil a role but become leaders, that is, adopt the identity prescribed by literature. Nobody can live up to the expectations set up by the literature and in organizations. Ford and colleagues go on to propose a multiple identity perspective in which we have multiple competing identities, not just one fixed one, and that leaders often have to ignore their preferred identity in favor of those expressed in their organizations. The preferred organizational identity has been shown to be pervasive within large-scale leadership development programmes, which actually diminishes the participants’ sense of self and encourages them to be followers rather than leaders.
- 16Key Findings of Gender Differences• Female leaders do not necessarily fall into the stereotypical assumptions of feminine versus masculine leadership behaviours
• Female leaders are more participative and democratic in their preferred leadership style compared to male leaders
• Female leaders tend to be more transformational and engage more in contingent reward behavior (only a small difference!) a female advantage since these behaviours are linked to higher leader effectiveness
• Female managers are devalued compared to men when they lead in a masculine manner
• Female and male leaders tend to be more effective in gender congruent roles (e.g. military positions and education)
• Female leaders show stronger global leadership self-efficacies in the areas of passion for diversity, intercultural empathy and diplomacy while men scored stronger regarding global business savvy, cosmopolitan outlook and interpersonal impact
• Followers behave the same towards their leader, irrespective of their gender
• Female leaders and followers interact more cooperatively - 17Female Leaders and Feminine Leadership – Opportunities and Persistent Challenges• Few female leaders in top positions. However, research findings are mixed
o There are no bias against women as leaders within upper levels of management
o There is a continuation of gender stereotyping across participants
o Inequalities and persistent challenges continue to exist - 18Glass Cealing and Glass CliffThe glass ceiling is preventing women from being promoted into top hierarchical positions and therefore perpetuating the unequal distribution of female leaders across an organization’s hierarchy.
- 19Three reasons for the glass cealing• Human capital differences (Lower education, training and work experiences - barriers at a micro, meso and macro level)
• Gender differences (o The relative hesitancy by many women to identify themselves and promote themselves as leaders, which may be linked to the historically masculine definition of what an effective leader is)
• Prejudice (Sex-typed theories of leadership, social role theory, a double bind situation) - 20Feminine Advantage• Women tend to be more natural at engaging with transformational and contingency reward type leadership behaviour, which has been seen as particularly successful and popular in organisations
• However, Vecchio warns that the research findings are rather weak and calls for more caution considering the limitations and danger of over-relying on the wonders of transformational leadership
• Another study finds that women have changed and have become more assertive, dominant and masculine, and hence better able to combine the communal and agentic aspects of leadership (that creates a double bind situation) - 21Diversity and Leadership• An umbrella for many specific foci such as ethnicity, age, gender, education, class and sexual orientation
• Diversity as been subsumed within three different areas:
o Gender as a form of diversity
o Cross-cultural studies of leadership
o In leadership textbooks as an element of groups and group leadership in organisations
• Strong parallels between the challenges for women as leaders and feminine leadership and the challenges than minorities face within organisations - 22Three stages to the leadership process- Attempted leadership: is an act by which an individual intends to influence a group for the purpose of solving mutual problems
- Successful leadership: is an attempted leadership act that has been followed; that is, an individual has influenced the group toward solving a mutual problem
- Effective leadership: has not only influences the direction of the group but also contributed to the group’s solution to the problem. - 23Ethical Leadership• Mendonca & Kanugo: It is an increasing societal concern that it is unacceptable for leaders in organizations to be unaware of moral responsibility and unethical behavior that drives an interest in ethics and leadership or ethical leadership
• Mendonca & Kanugo: Effective leadership occurs when the leader’s behavior and leadership influence are consistent with ethical and moral
values
Three categories of ethical leadership:
o Intentions: the ethics of leaders themselves – the intentions of leaders; their personal ethics;
o Relational – the ethics of how a leader leads or the ethics of the process of leadership; the means by which a leader gets things done and/or the relationship between the leader and other stakeholders.
o The ends – the ethics of what leaders does – the ethics of the outcomes of the leader’s actions. - 24Moral Luck (Ciulla)• Moral luck: there is an aspect of how well one thinks through a decision and the extent to which this thought process turns out to be ‘right’, but also accepts extrinsic factors that leaders have little or no control over, such as bad weather, accidents.
- 25AltruismKanungo and Mendonca: Ethical leadership comes about when a leader fulfils obligations because of their moral principles as opposed to considerations of media impact, and the leader fulfills these moral obligations because of virtue. It is essential for leaders to altruistic.
Three levels of authentic leadership
o Individual personal authenticity – the level to which one know one’s self and acts in accordance with the notion of self
o A leader’s authenticity as a leader
o Authentic leadership as a phenomenon in itself.
There is a suggestion that these levels are hierarchically ordered – authentic leadership is not possible without an authentic leader and it is not possible to be an authentic leader without first being an authentic person. - 26Caring Leadership• Ciulla suggests that part of the job of a leader is to take care of others, taking responsibility for them particularly in times of crisis.
• Gabriel describes the caring leader from a follower perspective, he suggests that followers expect leaders to be not only competent but also moral and that leaders tend to be judged more harshly on morality than others.
• Tompkins and Simpson suggest caring leadership has little to do with compassion, kindness or niceness, and more to do with fundamental organization and self-leadership which involves balancing stepping in and stepping back and wrestling with what we know and what we can only glimpse. - 27Bad Leadership• Incompetence
• Rigidity
• Intemperance
• Callousness
• Corruptness
• Insularity
• Evilness - 28LanguageLanguage can be explored as constituting reality, meaning that a phenomenon only becomes real through our naming of it and the meaning we attach to that phenomenon – how we think about it and describe it – will impact our behaviours in relation to it.
- 29Discourse• “d” Discourse: exploring local meanings within social interactions
• “D” Discourse: study of dominant socio-historical discourse in organisations and societies
A specific discourse can be seen as reflective of a group’s social identity and act as a mechanism for defining and reinforcing membership of the group as well as the shared sense-making of reality. The way we talk about leadership is influenced by the dominant discourses we are linked to. As discourses change over time in nature and importance, this will then also change and affect the individual’s view and understanding of leadership - 30Linguistic relativity hypothesisa national language influences patterns of thinking and subsequently action from an early age onwards
- 31Communication models• Effective communication within leadership means that the leader is not only able to transmit information effectively, but can also communicate ideas, tell stories and be an active listener
- 326 barriers to effective communication- Serial communication
- Status difference
- Social conformity
- Spatial distance
- Defensiveness
- Cultural differences - 33Communicative Action• Communicative action means that every dialogue should end with mutual understanding and agreement
• For communication to be successful a conversation needs to be undistorted and uninterrupted and there needs to be communicative rationality
• The ideal situation hardly every occurs in organizational settings as they are embedded in hierarchical relationships, status differences and a different real or perceived access to power and information - 34Leader Becoming• The process of becoming a leader is a socially constructed and locally situated one, where the leader is drawing actively and subconsciously on previous and current on-the-job-experiences with existing leaders in the organization.
• It is through the experiences of what we perceive as good or bad leadership that we come to identify with the ideal leader identity we wish to become.
• An aspirational element to a leader identity, which lies in the temporal, continuously changing nature of identity, that leads to an individual forever striving to become a leader but never actually “being” that ideal leader as the very notion of what is “ideal” is subject to continuous change - 35Why Arts and Aesthetics in Leadership• Modern organisations are complex, uncertain and ambiguous environments where managers face wicked, complex problems in a context of frequent external and internal changes
• Reliance on rational, logical decision-making is inadequate as it falsely assumes control, knowledge and certainty
• We need to engage the body and emotion as well as the mind to deal with ambiguity, the unknowable and uncertainty
• Through our engagement with notions of aesthetics we may be able to transform our understanding and praxis of leadership through a stronger focus on sensory experiences and sense-making as a core focus on leadership - 36Three distinct approachesLeadership Behaviour and Aesthetics (leaders need to develop bodily knowledge alongside cognitive knowledge – a sixth sense that is developed through a greater emphasis on sensing and feeling as much as doing)
Aesthetics and the Importance of Sensory Knowledge ( aesthetic as a concept is a sensory knowledge and felt meaning in relation to objects and experiences)
Emancipation of Leadership Studies (aesthetic process of drawing on sensory knowledge and aesthetic philosophy may help to unpack and engage with our understanding of social constructions and reconstructions of leadership) - 37The Art of Sense-makingThe ultimate aim in leadership is to master the art of deep, active and ongoing sense-making and meaning-making – the ability of a leader to translate what is going on inside and outside the organization to the group they are leading in a way that is meaningful to that group
- 38Art as LeadershipThe author or creator can either be seen as providing leadership through the creation of vision and symbolic meaning – through framing the movement – or alternatively as a medium between societal movements, ideologies and meanings and the wider audience.
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- Management Ledarskap FlashCards sobre Chapter 10-15, criado por Malin Sjöstål em 15-03-2019.
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- Malin Sjöstål
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