VITAMINS MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS

VITAMINS MINERALS AND TRACE ELEMENTS

1. VITAMINS

   • FAT-SOLUBLE
     • VITAMIN K
       • Common diseases by deficiency
         • Increase of PT
         • May be a factor in osteoporosis
         • Hemorrhagic disease of newborn in infants
         • Haemorrhage
       • Required for
         • Prothrombin
         • synthesis of gamma-carboxyglutamic acid in the protein osteocalcin (important for bone formation)
         • Vitamin K depending clotting factors (II, VII, IX, X)
       • In bloodstream is present in the form of phylloquinone (K1) In the liver is stored in the form of menaquinone (K2)
       • Main sources of vit-K: Fruits and vegetables oils, dark green leafy vegetables, cereals and gut microbiota
     • VITAMIN D (SHOULD BE CONSIDERED AS AN HORMONE)
       • Biologycal active form: 1-a,25-dihydroxychole-calciferol(calcitriol) (1,25-(OH)2D), produced in kidney from 25-hydroxy-cholecalciferol (25-(OH)D) formed in liver (this is considered as the endogenous vitamin (D3)
       • Metabolism
         • Ergosterol
           • UV
           • Ergocalciferol (D2)
         • 7-dehydrocholesterol (present in the skin)
           • Cholecalciferol (D3)
           • UV
       • common diseases by deficiency
         • Osteomalacia in adults
         • ncreased risk of death from cardiovascular disease
         • Rickets in young children
         • muscle weakness
         • asthma in children
         • Cancer
       • Required for
         • Calcium absorption/resorption
         • Induction of synthesis of calbidina (calbidin) that is required for calcium transport
         • Maintenance of structural and functional integrity of mucosal cells in innate barriers (e.g., skin, respiratory tract)
         • Different roles in the immune funtion
         • Promote bone growing
       • Vit D (1,25-(OH)2D works with PTH, to its regulation in order to produce more or less according the serum calcium levels
       • Main sources of vit-D: Sunlight (UV), dairy products, egg yolks
       • Vit D can be toxic in high doses (10-100 times RDA) and could lead to:
         • hypercalcemia
           • metastatic calcification
         • hypercalciuria
           • renal stones
     • VITAMIN E (TOCOPHEROLS)
       • alpha-tocopherol is the most potent of the tocopherols found in human tissues
         • Has Immune Function Roles
         • Inhibit PKC activity and modifies celular adhesion on Arachidonic Acid metabolism
       • Diseases by deficency
         • Hemolytic anemia ( in infants with fed based on formulas)
         • Edema( in infants with fed based on formulas)
         • Thrombocytosis (in infants with formula based fed)
       • Main sources of vit-E: Seeds, nuts, vegetable oils, avocados, wheat germ
       • Required for
         • Stabilizing coenzyme Q or  helping transfer electrons to coenzyme Q
         • enhance heme synthesis by increasing the levels of ­aminolevulinic acid (ALA) synthetase and ALA dehydratase
         • being the most abundant antioxidant abundant, prevents the oxidation of LDL
         • Different roles in the immune funtion
         • Reduce the risk of heart diseases
     • VITAMIN A
       • Active forms: Retinol, retinal and retinoic acid
         • Synthetized by plants in forms of carotenoids
           • Carotenoids are cleaved to retinol in liver
             • Most know carotenoids are
               • b-carotene: it is know to act as antioxidant
               • Retinol (is a steroid hormone)
                 • Retinyl (works in glycoprotein synthesis)
               • Retinal(Crucial in the visual cycle)
               • Retinoic acid (acts as an steriod hormone)
       • Requiered for
         • Maintenance of epithelial tissues
         • Prevent synthesis of high molecular weight forms of keratin
         • Synthesis of glycoproteins
         • Enhance the immune function
         • Eye and bone development
       • common diseases by deficiency
         • follicular hyperkeratinosis
         • anemia
         • Night blindness and xerophthalmia (in advanced stages)
         • Increased susceptibility to infection and cancer
         • Immune system deficiency
       • Main sources of vit-A: Yellow and orange fruits and vegetables, dark green leafy vegetables, eggs, milk, liver
       • Vitamin A is stored in liver so that it could be toxic in large amounts (not common by diet) but an excess of supplementation on the vitamin could lead to toxicity
   • WATER SOLUBLE
     • Thiamine (B1)
       • Required for
         • Carbohydrate metabolism
         • Co-factor for the key reactions catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and a-­ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
         • transketolase reactions of the pentose phosphate pathway
         • It appears to be required for acetylcholine synthesis and may also be required for ion translocation reactions in stimulated neural tissue
         • Amino acids metabolism
       • Is converted to its active form: thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)
       • Is absorved in jejunum/ phosphorylated in liver/degraded in liver and excreted by urine
       • common diseases or symtoms by deficiency
         • beriberi
         • Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome in alcoholic people
         • Mental depression
         • peripheral neuropathy
         • irritability, and fatigue
         • mental confusion
         • ataxia
       • Main sources of vit-B1: Whole grains, enriched bread and cereals, milk, meat
     • Pantothenic acid (B5)
       • main sources of Vit-B5: Pantothenic acid is very widespread in natural foods (with a well defined cellular structure)
       • common diseases or symtoms by deficiency
         • Rare: symptoms may include fatigue, insomnia, depression, irritability
       • is a component of coenzyme A (CoA) and the phosphopantetheine moiety of fatty acid synthase and thus is required for the metabolism of all fat, protein, and carbohydrate via the citric acid cycle
     • Pyridoxine (B6)
       • main sources of Vit- B6: Potatoes, bananas, beans, seeds, nuts, meat, poultry, fish, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, soy, organ meats
       • common diseases or symptoms
         • Confusion
         • irritability
         • depression
         • mouth and tongue sores
         • anemia
         • peripheral neurophaty (at extreme deficiency stages)
       • required for
         • Sodium and potassium balance
         • red blood cell synthesis
         • protein metabolism
         • helps to regulate inflammation (higher levels of the active form result in lower rates of inflammation)
         • Inmune function roles
           • Differentiation, proliferation and normal functioning of Tcells
           • Required in endogenous synthesis and metabolism of amino acids, the building blocks of antibodies ; inhibits Th2 cytokine-mediated activity
       • its a mixture of pyridoxine, pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and their esters 5-phosphate.
       • pyridoxal phosphate is its active form
       • additional facts
         • as much protein income, much vti-B6 may be required
     • Cyanocobalamin (B12)
       • common diseases or symptoms
         • Pernicious anemia, leading to nerve cell damage
       • required for
         • Fatty acid oxidation
         • nerve cell function
         • red blood cell production
         • Differentation, proliferation and normal functioning of T cells
         • May act as immunomodulator for cellular immunity, e ects on cytotoxic cells (e.g. NK cells, cytotoxic T cells)
         • Maintenance of structural and functional integrity of mucosal cells in innate barriers (e.g., skin, respiratory tract)
       • main sources of B12: This vitamin is available in animal product only. Liver, meat, fish, poultry, dairy product, eggs
       • (Cobalamine) Contains Cobalt in a Tetrapyrrole Ring
       • Digestion, absortion and transport : B12 transport to ileum requires the intrinsic factor
       • Liver stores up to 6-year supply of Vit-B12
     • Ascorbic Acid (C)
       • required for
         • maintenance of normal connective tissue and wound healing
         • bone formation
         • Hydroxylation of lysine and proline in protocollagen
         • is a component of he ground substance surrounding capillary walls
         • antioxidant funtion
         • ephinephrine synthesis
         • steroid synthesis
         • tyrosine degradation
         • bile acids formation
         • l-carnitine synthesis
         • improves absortion of non-hemic iron
         • High levels can improve antimicrobial e ects; increases serum levels of complement proteins ; role in IFN production
       • common diseases or symptoms
         • Dry hair
         • gingivitis
         • bleeding gums
         • dry and scaly skin
         • slow wound healing
         • easy bruising
         • compromised immunity
         • can lead to scurvy
       • main sources of Vit-C: fruits and vegetables
       • Vit C can not be synthetized by humans so it is a essencial nutrient
     • Riboflavin (B2)
       • precursor of the coenzymes flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) and flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
       • common diseases or symtoms by deficiency
         • Fatigue, slowed growth, digestive problems, light sensitivity, epithelial problems like cracks in the corners of the mouth
       • required for
         • Flavin coenzymes are essential for energy production and cellular respiration
       • Main sources of vit-B2: eggs, cereals, milk, meat
     • Biotin (B7)
       • common diseases or symptoms
         • depression
         • hallucinations
         • hair loss
         • dermatitis
         • loss of muscular coordination
       • manin sources of Vit-B7: peanuts, chocolate, cooked eggs, liver, fruits
         • Gut flora synthetized the majority of the B7 requirements
       • Required for
         • Cell growth
         • metabolism offatty acids
         • production of blood cells
         • glucose metabolism
       • additional facts
         • raw eggs intake may cause biotin deficiency due to the proteine avidin that get combined with biotin and avoid its absortion
       • Biotin is the prostetic group for a number of carboxylation reactions the most notable are: pyruvate carboxylase, acetyl-CoA carboxylase, propionyl-CoA carboxylase
     • Folic Acid (B9)
       • main sources of vit-B9: liver, legumes, dark green leafy vegetables, enriched breads and cereals, citrus fruits
       • common diseases or symptoms
         • shortness of breath
         • appetite loss
         • gingivitis
         • gastrointestinal problems
         • mental deficits
         • megaloblastic anemia
           • There is a risk factor when pregnancy or lactation. there is a risk of neural tube defects.
       • required for
         • synthesis of choline, glycine, purines and dTMP
         • Maintains or enhances NK cell cytotoxic activity
         • survival of regulatory T cells in the small intestine
         • Supports Th 1-mediated immune response
       • additional facts
         • Folic acid is also stored as polyglutamate in liver
       • The simplest form is pteroylmonoglutamic acid, however, folic acid usually occurs as polyglutamate derivates from 2 to70 glutamic acid residues
         • the form "tetrahydrofolate" is reduced and it circulates in plasma as the 5-metyltetrahydrofolate (N5MeTHF) and the N10-formyltetrahydrofolate-polyglutamate
     • Niacin (B3)
       • common diseases or symtoms by deficiency
         • Cracked, scaly skin; dementia; diarrhea; also known as pellagra
       • required for
         • Synthesis of NAD
         • cholesterol production
         • nerve function
       • main sources of Vit-B3: Meat, fish, poultry, enriched breads and cereals, peanuts
       • Niacin is not a vitamin in the strictest sense of the word, since some niacine can be synthesized from tryptophan
       • Is part of NAD and NADP
       • Niacine (Nicotinic acid) and niacinamide (nicotinamide) are both converted to the ubiquitous oxidation-reduction coenzymes NAD+ and NADP+ in the body

2. TRACE ELEMENTS

   • Molybdenum
     • main sources
       • Legumes, whole grains, nuts
     • diseases or symptoms
       • non specified yet
     • requird for
       • Cofactor for enzymes, coomponent of xanthine oxidase
   • copper
     • main sources
       • Seafood, organ meats, nuts, legumes, chocolate, enriched breads and cereals, some fruits and vegetables
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Anemia, low body temperature, bone fractures, low white blood cell concentration, irregular heartbeat, thyroid problems, hypersholesterolemia, leukopenia
     • required for
       • Is a cofactor for important enzymes,Red blood cell production, nerve and immune system function, collagen formation, acts as an antioxidant
   • iodine
     • main sources
       • Fish, shellfish, garlic, lima beans, sesame seeds, soybeans, dark leafy green vegetables
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Hypothyroidism: fatigue, weight gain, dry skin, temperature sensitivity
     • required for
       • Thyroid function
   • Iron
     • main sources
       • Meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, legumes, nuts, seeds, whole grains, dark leafy green vegetables
     • required for
       • Transport of oxygen in blood, production of ATP. it is required for proper phagocytosis and killing of bacteria by neutrophils
     • diseases or symptoms
       • microcytic hypochromic anemia, weakness, fatigue
     • Only 10% of the iron in an average mixed diet is usually absorbed, but the efficiency of absorption can be increased to 30% by severe iron deficiency
   • sulfur
     • required for
       • Component of amino acids
     • main sources
       • Eggs, meat, poultry, fish, legumes
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Protein deficiency
   • zinc
     • main sources
       • Meat, fish, poultry, cheese, shellfish
     • required for
       • Immunity, reproduction, growth, blood clotting, insulin and thyroid function. Over 300 zinc metalloenzymes have been described , including regulatory proteins and RNA and DNA polymerases
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Loss of appetite, poor growth, weight loss, skin problems, hair loss, vision problems, lack of taste or smell
   • Chromium
     • required for
       • Insulin function
     • main sources
       • Whole grains, lean meats, cheese, black pepper, thyme, brewer’s yeast
     • diseasess or symptoms
       • High blood sugar, triglyceride, and cholesterol levels
   • Selenium
     • required for
       • Antioxidant, thyroid function, immune system function
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Muscle pain
     • main sources
       • Brewer’s yeast, wheat germ, liver, butter, fish, shellfish, whole grains
   • Cobalt
     • required for
       • Component of B12
     • diseases or symptoms
       • not specified yet
     • main sources
       • Fish, nuts, leafy green vegetables, whole grains
   • Manganese
     • required for
       • Formation of connective tissue and bones, blood clotting, sex hormone development, metabolism, brain and nerve function
     • main sources
       • Nuts, seeds, whole grains, legumes
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Infertility, bone malformation, weakness, seizures
   • fluoride
     • required for
       • Maintenance of bone and tooth structure
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Increased cavities, weak bones and teeth
     • main sources
       • Fluoridated water

3. MINERALS

   • Sodium
     • Required for
       • Blood pressure, blood volume, muscle and nerve function
     • main sources
       • Table salt, milk, beets, celery, processed foods
     • diseases or symptoms
   • Calcium
     • required for
       • Bone structure and health; nerve and muscle functions, especially cardiac function. Mediates some hormonal responses, is essential for blood coagulation
     • main sources
       • Dairy products, dark green leafy vegetables, blackstrap molasses, nuts, brewer’s yeast, some fish
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Slow growth, weak and brittle bones, elevated blood pressure.
   • Magnesium
     • required for
       • Enzyme activation, production of energy, regulation of other nutrients
     • main sources
       • Whole grains, nuts, leafy green vegetables
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Agitation, anxiety, sleep problems, nausea and vomiting, abnormal heart rhythms, low blood pressure, muscular problems
   • Potassium
     • Required for
       • Nerve and muscle function; acts as an electrolyte
       • Is the main intracellular cation
     • Main sourcess
       • Meats, some fish, fruits, vegetables, legumes, dairy products
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Hypokalemia: weakness, fatigue, muscle cramping, gastrointestinal problems, cardiac problems
   • Phosphorous
     • required for
       • Bone formation, metabolism, ATP production
     • main sources
       • Meat, milk
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Diseases associated with deficiency are rare
   • Chloride
     • required for
       • Balance of body fluids, digestion
     • main sources
       • Most foods, salt, vegetables, especially seaweed, tomatoes, lettuce, celery, olives
     • diseases or symptoms
       • Loss of appetite, muscle cramps

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