vertebrate

vertebrate

1. non-amniote

   • amphibian
     • Anura (frog, toad)
       • -colour: dorsal/ventral -toes: webbed feet, adhesive toe pads, keratinized tubercles -legs: long and muscular, short and stocky
       • Myobatrachoidae (ground frog)
         • largest family -quick metamorphosis of tadpoles, eggs laid in foam, swallow eggs and incubation in stomach -metatarsal tubercles -round body, short limbs -secrete cocoon layer Corroboree frog-chytrid fungus
       • Hylidae (tree frog)
         • arboreal, non-arboreal, fossorial -forward-facing eyes -expanded sticky circular discs on tips -webbed feet -eggs laid underwater in clumps attached to vegetation -opposable thumbs
       • Microhylidae (narrow mouthed frog)
         • arboreal, terrestrial (walker) -bypass tadpole stage
       • Ranidae (true frog)
     • Caudata/Urodela (newts, salamanders)
       • Salamanders-northern Pangaea: Laurasia
     • Gymnophiona/Apoda (caecilian)
   • fish

2. amniote

   • Synapsid
     • mammal
       • -endothermic -hair provide insulation -respiration with a muscular diaphragm: tidal flow (in and out) -mammary gland (ability to suckle) -differentiation of teeth: heterodont dentition -refinement of ear bones: one bone in lower jaw, three bones in middle ear
       • Monotreme
         • -'Monotremata' means 'one hole': single hole from both faeces and urine is voided -egg-laying mammals, female lay soft-shelled eggs -suckle young via milk secreted through numerous ducts opening onto the surface of the abdomen (not via teats) -presence of a true cloaca: one external orifice and tube for excretory and reproductive products -two seperate uteri and cervices
         • Ornithorhynchidae (platypus)
           • -restricted to areas with permanent streams -more primitive than echidna -normal body temperature maintained by elevation of metabolic rate -only venomous Australian mammal, males have spur and venom gland -semi-aquatic -diet: aquatic invertebrates (sifted from bottom sediments) -forelimbs: alternate for propulsion, short and strong hindlimbs and tail: rudder -forefoot: significant webbing hindfoot: less webbing, sharp claws -broad and flat tail  -crepuscular activity -long-lived: up to 21 years -streamlined body: torpedo shaped -nostril: ventrally located, closed by a valve when diving -groove that houses eyes and ears is closed when diving -skeletal heavy enough to support large muscles -teeth presented in young, shed by adulthood -spend ~60s under water foraging: blood has higher oxygen-carrying capacity -bill: bones of snout + extensive cartilage sheet, covered by soft, sensitive skin primary sense organ: tiny specialised pones- electroreceptors or touch receptors detect smell, electrical stimuli given off by active prey -prey initially stored in cheek pouches, keratinised dental pads are used to grind prey, indigestable parts filtered out along grooves -simple GIT -females build burrows and line it with moist vegetation to shelter and raise young young are suckled in the burrow for 3-4 months
         • Tachyglossidae (echidna)
           • -oviporous -bony bill or beak, no teeth -no marsupial shelf in mandible -ancient shoulder girdle (5 bones): a series of extra bones, a less well-developed scapula -presence of epipubis bone -detect prey using electromagnetic sensors in bill or beak -no teats associated with mammary glands -low body temperature -baby named 'puggle' -testicond (internal testes), unique penis structure: four head -well-developed forelimbs -well-developed olfactory bulb (processing smell)
           • Western long-beaked echidna
           • Eastern long-beaked echidna
           • Sir David's long-beaked echidna
           • short-beaked echidna
             • -'Tachyglossus' = quick tongue -widespread in Australia -snot bubble -spiky ball -eat ants and termites -small mouth, open ventrally, upper and lower jaw joined by ligament that form a tunnel -crepuscular activity (dawn and dusk) -solitary -autumn & winter: torpor, deep hibernation -burrow up to 1m -long tongue to protrude into soil and wood
       • Marsupial
         • -'Marsupialia' = pouch except males, some species of females, echidna develop a puch when suckling-most have an opposable first digit on hindfeet: hallux -usually smaller brain, large olfactory bulbs, smaller surface area of cerebral cortex -slightly lower body temperature and metabolic rate -males: scrotum in front of penis -young are born in an embryonic and underdeveloped condition, altricial young well-developed forelimbs, olfaction, inner ears, GIT neonate has circular mouth -short gestation (pregnancy) -extended period of lactation: young suckle milk secreted through a teat, often with a pouch milk composition changes during lactation, antibodies are transferred across the gut wall for relatively long periods of time -pouch: high humidity, stable temperature, formed by invagination of skin of ventral abdomen through a gap in the cutaneous muscles, interior skin relatively hairless, produces a brown secretion that coats the poach wall, mammary glands in pouch with long teats-path of ureters prevent fusion of vagina into a single structure:~two lateral + one median vaginae~two uteri~two cervices-one external orifice for reproduction and excretion -teeth: incisors (cutting and securing food), canines (seizing and piercing prey), premolars (piercing), molars (cutting and crushing)
         • Ameridelphia (Americas)
         • Australidelphia (Australia & PNG)
           • Notoryctemorphia (moles)
             • -ancient lineage -2 species (Northern and Southern)-carnivorous/insectivorous -low metabolic rate, highly variable body temperature -polyprodont dentition,teeth are simple, blunt and widely seperated -extremely simple brain, olfactory bulb enormous -relatively simple GIT, no caecum (no boundary between small and large intestine) -fossorial lifestyle: digging or burrowing and lives underground -adaptation: blind, absence of external pinnae (ears) but distinct ear openings beneath the fur, heavily keratinised skin on nose with small, slit-like nostril -pouch in male and female -no syndactyly -testes lie between the skin and abdomen -forelimbs: short and powerful, digits 3&4 develop into large, spade-like claws for digging tail: shortened and immensely strong neck vertebrate fused: provide more strength for head
             • Northern marsupial mole
             • Southern marsupial mole
           • Dasyuromorphia (carnivore marsupial)
             • -carnivorous/insectivorous -polyprodont dentition: 3 pairs of equal-sized lower incisors, well-developed upper and lower canines, blade-like premolars, molars with sharp cusps (except numbat) -forelimbs: 5 clawed digits radiating from the palm hindfoot: 5 seperate toes (no syndactyly) arboreal- broad and small, opposable hallux terrestrial- longer and hallux vestigial quadrupedal -non-prehensile tail -GIT: simple stomach, no caecum, short small intestine and colon  -reproduction:  smaller insectivores >3 young, lifespan <3 years larger carnivores 1-2 young, lifespan ~6 years -semelparity (some species): males produce a sigle cohort of sperm then die, very intensive mating period with long copulations, very high testosterone and cortisol concentration
             • Thylacinidae (Tasmanian tiger)
             • Dasyuridae (quoll, Tasmanian devil)
             • Myrmecobiidae (numbat)
           • Peramelemorphia (bandicoot, bilby)
             • -omnivorous marsupial -long, pointed head -compact body -hindlimb: large with 4 toes digit 1 absent, digits 2/3 syndactyly, digits 4/5 well-developed forelimb: shorter, mascular, well-developed claws (digging) digits 2/3/4 well-developed -bound gait: shorter forelimb, longer hindlimb -non-prehensile, short tail -polyprotodont dentition 3 pairs of equal-sized lower incisors well-developed canine long jaw -brain: large olfactory bulbs -some plant: more complex GIT than carnivores -fast reproducer!! fastest growth rate
             • Peramelidae (bandicoot)
             • Thylacomyidae (bilby)
             • Chaeropodidae (pig-footed bandicoot)
               • extinct!
           • Diprotodontia (kangaroo, wallaby, koala, wombat)
             • -syndactyly digit 2/3 hindlimb -herbivores (grazer/browser, foregut/hindgut) or omnivores -one pair of lower incisors no lower canines no premolar --diastema (space)
             • Vombatidae (wombat)
             • Phascolarctidae (koala)
             • Phalangeridae & Pseudocheiridae (brushtail, ringtai possum, cuscus)
             • Petauridae (glider & triok/striped possum)
             • Macropodidae (kangaroo & wallaby)
       • Eutherian
         • -placental mammals -those that are not monotremes nor marsupials -one median vagina, one uterus, one cervix, two external orifices
         • Rodentia (rodent)
           • Muridae (true rat and mice)
             • Australian old Endemics
             • Papuan old Endemics
             • Australo-Papuan new Endemics
         • Chiroptera (bat)
           • Megachiroptera
           • Microchiroptera
         • Carnivora (dingo)
   • Sauropsid (reptile)
     • reptile (Aus. 1st sp.) -air breathing lung -3 chambered heart (crocodile 4 chambered) -ectothermic: cold-blooded (except bird and leatherback turtle) -thermoregulation: body temp reflect surroundings -heliotherm: basking and shuttling -brumation (cold) & aestivation (hot/drought) -scales, scutes
     • Diapsid
       • temporal fenestrae
       • Archosaur
         • leader -anteorbital fenestra: hole in front of eyes mandibular fenestra: hole on lower jaw -thecodont dentition: teeth fixed in sockets in jaw -osteoderm (crocodile), feather (bird) -upright limbs
         • crocodile
           • Crocodylidae
             • -juvenile: pale yellow; adult: green/brown -opportunistic carnivores, drown and swallow prey ~digestive system (large prey): neurologically control heart valve blood to bypass lung and go straight to stomach  increase gastric juice production by 10x ~special muscle alongside lungs to push
             • C. porosus (saltwater crocodile)
               • -larger -wetland, swamps, estuary, open ocean (dry) -social basking, highly territorial -head: U-shape, nuchal pattern
             • C. johnstoni (freshwater crocodile)
               • -smaller -freshwater wetland, billabong creek but saltwater -shy, rarely aggressive -head: V-shape, nuchal pattern, occipital pattern
           • Gavialidae
           • Alligatoridae
             • Alligator
             • Caiman
         • dinosaur
           • non-avian dinosaur
           • bird
             • -most numerically successful class of tetrapod (forelimbs as wings) -10k living species, Australia 900 species 45% endemic -endothermic -feathers: made of keratin -beaked jaws: bony core surrounded by keratin, toothless -high metabolic rate -4-chambered heart  -light-weight skeleton
             • Paleognathae
               • ostrich: 2-toed others: 3-toed
               • Emu
               • Cassowary
                 • Southern cassowary
                   • -casque: made of keratin, spongy centre ~protection, heat dissipation, hearing/sexual selection -3-toed: thick, powerful, equipped with lethal dagger-like claws -males take care of young -diet: fallen fruit and fungi, safely digesting food that is toxic to others -solitary (pairs only in breeding season)
                 • Northern cassowary
                 • Dwarf cassowary
               • ostrich, rhea, kiwi, tinamous
             • Neognathae
               • Galloanserae (fowl)
                 • -prolific: clutches of 5-10 eggs -social: notoriously polygynous (one M, multiple F ) / polygamous (multiple partners) -young develop quicky: able to swim / fly soon after emerge
                 • Galliformes (landfowl, gamefowl)
                   • Megapodiidae (mound-builder)
                     • -large foot -massive nest mounds regulate heat while eggs develop-superprecocial: very mature when hatched-browser-mainly solitary
                     • Australian Brush-turkey
                   • Phasianidae (pheasant, chicken, turkey)
                     • -heavy, ground-living -sexual dimorphism -short wings, strong legs -many have a spur on legs
                     • King quail
                 • Anseriformes (waterfowl)
                   • Anseranatidae (magpie goose)
                     • -once widespread in southern Australia, disappeared due to drainage of wetlands used for breeding -high cultural significance has led to habitat protection
                     • Magpie goose
                   • Anatidae (duck, geese, swan)
                     • -cosmopolitan distribution: all continents, many undertake annual migrations -adapted for swimming, floating, diving -herbivorous -monogamous breeders (one partner) -sexual dimorphism -long necks, short legs, webbed feet
                     • Blue-billed duck
               • Neoaves
                 • Aequornithes (core water birds)
                   • Pelecaniformes (pelican, ibis, spoonbill)
                   • Sphenisciformes (penguin)
                   • Charadriiformes (plover, lapwing, oystercatcher, plains wanderer)
                 • Columbaves (pigeon, dove, bustard, cuckoo)
                   • Columbiformes (pigeon, dove)
                   • Cuculiformes (cuckoo)
                 • Gruimorphae (crane-like, long legs)
                   • Gruiformes (crane, rail, crake, coot)
                 • Strisores (owlet-night jar, swift, frogmouth)
                   • Podargiformes (frogmouth)
                   • Apodiformes (swift)
                 • Inopinaves (core land birds)
                   • Accipitriformes (hawk, kite, eagle)
                   • Strigiformes (owl)
                   • Passeriformes (songbird: currawong, magpie, honeyeater, lyrebird)
                   • Falconiformes (falcon)
                   • Coraciiformes (kingfisher, roller)
                   • Psittaciformes (parrot, ally)
       • Lepidosaur
         • scale -acrodont (attached to the crest of jawbone) pleurodont(attached to the side of jawbone) dentition: no root -overlapping keratinized scales -sprawling limbs -caudal anatomy: defense mechanism
         • tuatara
         • squamata
           • snake
             • cranial: head caudal: tail dorsal: back ventral: belly
             • Typhlopidae (blind/worm snake)
               • small, slender, cylindrical fossorial, live underground-blunt head-eyes sunk below thickened scales: black spots-no external trace of limbs-mouth can't open wide-smooth, small, uniform scales -normal length ventral scales -short, thick, blunt tail with thorn-like terminal scale
             • Pythonidae (python)
               • heavy-bodied and muscular - a pair of small spur-like vestiges of hind limbs on either side of vent -head scales: large symmetrical plates/small irregular scales -ventral scales: double width of other scales (arboreal) -tapering tail -have loreal scale, non-venomous -sharp, recurved teeth for gripping prey -some have sensory pits on labial scales: sense infrared thermal radiation (warm prey) -kill prey by constriction
             • Acrochordidae (file snake)
               • aquatic snake in freshwater /estuarine environment -nostril positioned dorsally: on top of the snout (breathing while submerge) -obvious round eyes -loose baggy skin -small, granular scales -tapering tail, not prehensile -have loreal scale, non-venomous, constriction and grip of slippery prey -scale sensilla(on head, around eyes) highly developed: to feel movement by vibration
             • Colubridae (colubrid snake)
               • semi-arboreal -ventral scales: about body width -head scales: large symmetrical plates -tapering tail -flexible body for climbing, burrowing, swimming -have loreal scale, non-venomous -some very mild venom with rear-fanged dentition
             • Elapidae (elapid snake)
               • -no loreal scale, highly venomous (immobilize prey) -permanently erect, hollow fangs at front of upper jaw -ventral scales: about body width -head scales: large symmetrical plates
             • Hydrophiidae (sea snake)
               • marine dwelling (have lung) -laterally compressed tail (swimming) -venomous, some have loreal scale -head scales: large symmetrical plates-central body scales: variable in size-ventral scales: reduced or absent in fully marine species-has fang in front of upper jaw-ovoviviparous, all life stage at sea
             • Laticaudidae (sea krait)
               • semi-aquatic -lay eggs on land -less laterally compressed tail -ventral scales: half the body width -no loreal scale, venomous - fangs at front of upper jaw -oviporous, must come to land
           • lizard
             • Agamidae (dragon lizard)
               • -limbs well-developed -distal digits clawed -lower eyelid movable -small, granular, spinose scales -broad, fleshy tongue -acrodont dentition -flat body shape -frill necked: cartilage (bluffing behaviour)
             • Gekkonidae (gecko)
               • -distal limbs end in dilated pads (foot uncurl each step) ~lamellae: folds of skin ~setae: fine hair-line structure ~spatulae: tips of setae branch-immovable eyelid, clear scale: brille-small, granular scales, smooth and soft skin-fleshy, long tongue (clean eyes)
             • Pygopodidae (legless lizard)
             • Scincidae (skink)
               • largest diverse family of Lapidosauria -limb varying from well-developed to absent externally -clawed digits -lower eyelids: varying from thick to scaly, moveable to immovable -overlapping large scales, each with a layer of bone underneath (osteoderm) -broad and fleshy tongue
             • Varanidae (monitor lizard)
               • large, robust -well-developed muscular skeletal structure -long neck, pointed snout -strong, elongated tail (balance and defense) -distal end of digit have large claws -lower eyelid thick, scaly and movable -granular, spinose scales -sharp, recurved, replaceable teeth -long, slender, bifurcated (forked) tongue: chemoreception
     • Anapsid
       • testudine (turtle)
         • -carapace (top shell): ribcage and vertebrae fused into  plaston (bottom shell): formed from shoulder girdle and sternum to pelvic girdle -no teeth, using sharp-edge beaks to cut food -scutes made of keratin
         • Chelidae (snake-necked turtle)
           • -Bellinger River Snapping turtle -Gondwana origin-highly aquatic-side-neck orientation head drawn under shell in horizontal S-bend-distinct ankle joints-cloaca breathing in some species-bottom of freshwater river-beds & swamps-aestivate (bury under leaf litter)-basking heliotherms (land or water surface)-webbed feet, clawed digits
         • Carettochelyidae (pig-nosed turtle)
           • /pitted shelled turtle -monotypic family! only one single living species -native to northern AUstralia & PNG -freshwater, murky water of river -flippers like sea turtle, nose like pig -paddle-like fins with two claws -no scutes, leathery texture -aggresive and territorial -omnivorous
         • Cheloniidae (marine turtle)
           • -flat streamlined, rounded body -head and limbs are fixed outside the shell -distinct carapace across all species -forelimbs modified into long, paddle-like flippers (swimming) -hindlimbs smaller (steering) -small claws on flippers -late maturation, high juvenile mortality(>90% eaten by predators), migration to annual breeding sites -shedding scutes -digestive system: swallow food along with excess water, no throat, esophagus lined with papillae (cartilaginous and keratinised projections) poiting toward stomach, to trap food whilst excess water is expelled -salt glands on eyes
         • Dermochelyidae (leatherback turtle)
           • -marine dwelling -largest of all marine turtles -love jellyfish, soft-bodied invertebrate -carapace is leathery-like skin with osteoderm to support skin (7 ridges) ~osteoderm interconnected with collagen fibres called sutures, allow flexing -front (larger) and back flippers, no claws -endothermic, warm-blood -adaptation for diving: ~flexible shell that absorb N2 ~collapsible lungs to compress as pressure changes ~large stores of O2 in blood and muscle -slow heart rate to conserve O2 -thermoregulation -salt glands in eyes twice the size of brain -pink spot: lies about pineal gland (third eye), regulate circadian rhythm [sunlight filters, allow turtle to measure sunlight and detect seasonal changes, trigger migration]