Gender and identity: sex, gender roles and socialisation

Sociology: Culture & Identity

1. Topic 4

   • Gender and identity
     • Sociologists say that gender is socially constructed rather than biologically determined - Nurture is more important than nature. Feminist sociologists see gender as shaped by a social and cultural environment dominated by a culture of partiarchy (male culture).
   • Sex and gender
     • Key term: Sex refers to the biological differences between men and women, while gender refers to the culturally created differences between men and women which are learnt through socialisation.
     • Key terms: A gender role is the pattern of behaviour which is expected from the individuals of either sex.
     • Key term: Gender identity refers to how people see themselves, in terms of thier gender roles and biological sex.
   • Gender and biology
     • Our sexual or biological characteristics do not determine or decide gender roles and identities. Although, biological difference between men and women are the same everywhere, the behaviour and identities adopted by men and women differ both within the same society, and between societies.
   • Having a feminine or masculine identity enables individuals to share things with other and gives people guidelines for identifyng with and relating to other like themselves. The particular gender identity people marks them out as similar to some people and different from others, and from others, and they will generally adopt forms which 'fit' the identities they construct.
     • Gender is an important source of identity
   • The social construction of hegemonic gender indentities through socialisation
     • There is a wide range of primary and secondary agencies of socialisation which establish traditional gender roles and mould males and females into the hegemonic gender identities.
     • The role of the family
       • From an early age children are socialised to conform with expectations associated with their gender.
       • Study: Oakley identifies four processes at the centre of making a gender identity: Maipulation i how parents encourage or dicourage behaviour on the basis of appropriateness for the sex. Canalization - how parents channel children's interests into toys and activites seen as normal for that sex. Domestic activities - girls will help their mothers with housework which reinforces expectations of how they should behave in later life. Verbal appellations - use stereotypical terms like 'pretty' for girls and 'handsome' for boys to reinforce cultural expectations of the different genders.
     • The role of the school
       • Much of this gender socialisation goes on through the school's hidden curriculum.
         • Example: Teachers' attitudes, with teachers traditionally encourage boys more in sciences and computing, placing more emphasis on their progress than that of girls; giving different career advice to boys and girls; and treating disruptive, unruly behaviour by boys and girls differently
         • Example: Subject choice: girls and boys have traditionally been counselled by parents and teachers into talking different subjects. Girls are more likely to study textiles and food technology, while boys are more likely yo choose woodwork and graphics technology.
       • Study: Sue Sharpe's (1994) survey of working class girls in the early 1970s found that such experiecnes meant that female identity revolved around love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers more or less in that order.
     • The role of the mass media
       • Study: Billington et al (1998) argued that the mass media traditionally show masculinity as dominant and feminity as submissive. Women are often presented as objects to be enjoyed by men - 'page 3 girls'.
     • Peer group pressure
       • People try to gain acceptance among their peers by conforming to the norms of their peer group, and this frequently invloves conformity to sterotyped masculine or feminie identitesthere are also double standards in terms of the sexual aspectsof masculine and feminie. This double standard helps to encourage conformity to separate gender identities for men and women, with the stereotyped men as sexual athlete and stereotyped woman as the passive and faithful lover, wife or girlfriend.
     • Different sports
     • Children's books
     • Children's toys
       • Key term: Toy codes - gender specific toys support the ideas about what are the expected future gender roles - girls play with dolls in preparations for being mothers, boys get aggressive (action) toys and creative toys.
       • Key terms: Plays codes - boys are expected to play boisterously where are girls are expected to play in a nicer way.
     • Dress
   • Gender stereotypes and hegemonic gender identities in Britain
     • Key term: A stereotype is a generalised, over-simplifeied view of the features of a social group, allowing for few individuals differences among members of the group. The assumption is made that all members of the group share the same features.
     • Key term: A hegemonic identity is one that is so dominant that it makes it difficult for individuals to assert alternative identities.
     • Key term: Heterosexuality involves a sexual orientation towards people of tje opposite sex.
     • Key term: Sexual orientation refers to the type of people to whom individuals are either physically or romantically attracted, of tje same or the opposite sex.
     • Hegemonic feminine characteristics: sexually passive, expression of emotions/ emotional warmth, caring and sensitive, weak, fragile/small, gentleness and non-aggressive, Dependence (on men), non-competitive, aviods risks, major concern with physical appearance.
     • Hegemonic masculine characteristics: Sexual dominance, repression of emotions/ emotional distance, physical strength/muscular/tall, aggression, independence and self-reliance, competitiveness and ambition, risk-taking, lack of concern with personal appearance.
       • Study: The genderstereostype of men involves a hegemonic identity that Connell (1995) called a 'hegemonic masculinity', but we could also consider there to be a 'hegemonic femininity'.

2. Changing gender identities

   • In recent years, there has been evidence of some change in traditional ideas about masculine and feminie gender identities, and related seuality. More males and females are adopting gender identities which combine elements of both genders, and these are constantly changing.
   • Changing female identities
     • Study: Post-modernists agrue that society today is characterised by greater choice because of globalisation and greater levels of consumption. The increased economic independence of women mean women are now seen as important cosumers by the mass media and that leisure activites and consumption are the most significant ways in which views on masculine and feminine identity are made. This has supposedly led to the emergence of girl power and ladettes who increasingly adopt male forms of behaviour e.g. drinking and smoking
   • Changing male identities
     • Since the 1980s there has been speculation about the emergence of a so-called 'new man', who was allegedly more caring, more likely to share, express emotional needs and a willingness to do their fair share of the housework. Love, family, personal relations and getting in touvh with his own emotions were meant to be more important tjen achieveing career success and power in the family and society. These new male identities are becoming more concerned with apperance.
     • Male bodies are now emerging in advertising as sex objects to sell tings, in much the same way as women's bodies have always been used. e.g. Calvin klein. The growth of eating disorders, like anorexia, among men and Men's health weeks suggest a new concern with men's health and attractiveness.
     • New bloke - a New Lad who has become recent father, but who as well as hanging out in the pub is also to be found changing nappies.
     • New Dad - a new man who discovers the joys of fatherhooh.
     • Emo Boy - a version og New Man, who reads books, appreciates the arts, watches his diet, isn't afraid of showing his emotions and dresses with more care and style then mostgirls, usually in tight sweaters and trousers.
     • New Lad - a reaction against the New Man, associated with 'yob culture' of agressive and promiscous sex, lager, football and loutishness.
     • Metrosexuals - heterosexual en who embrace their feminine side, are in touch with their feelings, use moistureier and designer cosmetic products, who have refined tastes in clothing, and incorporate elements of the gay lifestyle.