APES UNIT 2 STUDY GUIDE

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CHAPTER 4

The tree of life:

Archaea: Microbes living in the most extreme enviorments~ more closley related to Eukaryoites~

Eukarya: Humans, plants and fungi~have a membrane and cell organs

Bacteria: Cells do not have membranes (prokaryotes~ oldest fossils

Species: an indivisiual belonging to a group of organisms that is able to produce fertile offsprings

Genus Species: a class or group with common attributes

Evolution: The change in genetic make up in a population over sussessive generations

caused by Natural selection, inbreeding, or mutation

Adaptative trait: Heritable trait that allows an indivisual to survive through natural selection and reproduce more than other indivisuals

Selective pressure: An outside pressure from the population that makes it change genetically in order to survive

Differential Reproduction: Indivisuals can leave more off springs than others

Genetic Resistance: One or more organisms designed to tolerate a toxin that used to poison it.

Natural Selection can only occur when...

The trait is heritable: it can pass down through reproduction

Variable in population: Produced through random mutations

Differential reproduction: Indivisuals can leave more offspring than others

Limitations to natural selection:

change in the enviormental conditions can lead to adaptation only for traits already present in the populations gene pool~or mutated traits

limited to reproductive capicity

Species that are not genetically diverse reproduce slowly

Mutations: random changes in the structure or number of DNA molecules

Natural Selection: Happens on individuals but evolution occurs in populations

Genes mutate, individuals are selected and populations evolve that are better adapted to survive and reproduce under existing environmental conditions

Gene Flow: the movement/exchange of genes from one population of species to another

Genetic Drift: The process of change in a population of the genetic makeup due to random events rather than natural selection~ leads to unequal reproduction success

4 processes that can change the gene pool:

Mutation

natural selection

genetic flow

genetic drift

Genetic drift's gene frequency could help or hinder the species which would not make the trait adaptive

A smaller population would produce a more rapid change in the gene pool because 1 indivisual has a large effect in the reproduciton cycle

Bacteria can reproduce rapidly causing it to have mutations that have a high genetic resistance making the previous toxins no longer poisonous

A population with a high reproduction capacity which are usually ones with genetically diverse populations reproduce faster than those that have slow reproduciton capacity because mutations take longer when there are fewer offsprings being born.

Types of natural selection

Diversifying: selects two or more extreme genes that each have specific advantages~increase in genetic variance

Stabalizing: natural selection favors an average gene~decrease in genetic variance

Directional: Shifts towards new gene when exposed to enviormental changes

Convergent evolution: species that are not closley related start adapting similar traits due to enviormental conditions

Geographic Isolation: Different groups of the same species population become isolated in a specific region

Divergence: Moving or spreading apart

Speciation: two species arise from one

Reproductive Isolation: When a species is isolated for so long they can no longer reproduce fertile offsprings with one another

Why do species go extinct?

Meteors//climate change// invasive species// resource usage

Adaptive radiation: When an area is vancant and several new species occupy the space

Myths about evolution:

survival of the fittest means who can reproduce the most

not all mutations are for the better~ some hinder

Evolution is random not a part of natures plan

Habitat: place where the species lives

different from niche:

niche is the pattern of living versus habitat is where the species live

Niche: Every species has a specific role to play in the enviorment... that role given to the species is called a niche

Generalists species:

have broad niches

live in many places

eat variaty

tolerate enviormental changes

Specialist species:

narrow niches

few types of food

cannot tolerate wild climate changes

have few competitors

Indicator species: species that provide early warning signs of damage

Non-native species: (alien, invasive, exotic)

species that migrate to ecosystem

Opposite of Native species which normally thrive in the specific ecosystem

Endemic: Species that are not extinct but only exist in one specific region/ area

Keystone Species: species that have a large effect on the enviorment

more vunerable to extinction

they can be pollinators or high food chain animals because the nutrients is cycled through

Foundation Species: Creating/ enhancing communities in a way that benefits others

Island biogeography theory:

Birds that fly to this island are more prone to extinction because the resources are limited.

When island is low, extinction rate low because few birds

predicts that distant islands will have lower immigration rates than mainland but close islands will have high immigration rates and support more species

Large islands with low extinciton rates will have more species than smaller ones

islands closer to the mainland will have more species and distant islands will have less which ulitmately makes it equal

Species richness: raw number of species found in a community

Species diveristy: based on the number of individuals of each species

CHAPTER 5

Predation competition: when a predator eats all of a prey

Interspecific competition: when two or more species interact to get at the same resource

Competitive exclusion principle: no two species can occupy exactly the same ecological niche for very long because one will lose benefits to resources

Resource Partitioning: Some species evolve so that they do not have to compete with other species for resources

How does it effect the distribution?

this makes them more specialists than generalists

population dynamics: characteristic changes due to enviormental changes

Effects on evolution?

speeds up the evolution

Coevolution: when populaitons of two different species interact for a long time together it can both cause changes in their gene pool because both sides have become more competitive

Symbiotic relationship: where two organisms from different species interact

Mutualism: Interaction benefiting both species

Commensalism: Interaction benefiting one species but has little to no effect on another

Parasitism: when a parasites feed on the body or uses energy of another organism (lives on the host)

Ecological succession: gradual change in species composition in a given area

Primary succession: gradual establishment of biotic communities in lifeless areas

Pioneer species:

colonizing species that are the first to come to the given area in the ecological succession

they keep getting replaced when ecological conditions change

no soil or sediment

Secondary succession: where species develop in places where there is a layer of soil or sediment

Climax (mature) community: an area keeps growing until the species reach their climax, then the area does not reproduce or mutate as quickly

pioneer species:

colonizing species that are the first to come to the given area in the ecological succession

they keep getting replaced when ecological conditions change

Disturbance:

How do they relate to succession?

Inertia/persistance: the ability for an area to survive moderate disturbances

Resiliance: the ability for an area to be restored through secondary succession

how does it affect the stability? if the earth was never able to withold disturbances or be restored than our resources and livable regions will quickly depleat

Background extinction: 3.56 billion of years that the earth has existed there has been a low level of extintion

Mass extinction: extinction of a high number of species at a relativley low rate

Endangered species: few indivisual survivors that makes people weary that they are heading towards biological extinction (an irreversible loss of natural capita)

threatened species:

could become endangered in the near future because their numbers have been declining but still are in a safe range

aka vunerable species

Causes of species depleation and premature depleation:

HIPPCO

Habitat destruction, degration, and fragmentation

Invasive species

Population growth

Pollution

climate change

Overexploitation

Characteristics of species prone species:

low reproductive rate

specialized niche

narrow distribution

feeds at high trophic level

fixed migrotary patterns

rare

commercially valued

large territories

Why are top consumers more prone to extinction?

supported by greater amount of biomass due to energy pyramid

requiring large unfragmented habitat

potential biomagnification of any toxin

US laws regarding species protection:

Endangered species act of 1973: identify and protect endangered species in US / abroad

agencies involved:

USFWS (Us fish and wildlife service)

NMFS (national marine fisheries service)

two international treaties designed to help protect species:

CITES: (convention on international trade in endangered species) that is signed by 172 countries and bans hunting, capturing, selling of endangered/ threatened animals

CBD: (Convention on biological diversity) US does not follow, but 190 other countries do which enables governments to reverse the global decline of biodiversity through benefits

What is a biodiversity hotspot? why do we want to protect species on a global scale?

CHAPTER 4

The tree of life:

Archaea: Microbes living in the most extreme enviorments~ more closley related to Eukaryoites~

Eukarya: Humans, plants and fungi~have a membrane and cell organs

Bacteria: Cells do not have membranes (prokaryotes~ oldest fossils

Species: an indivisiual belonging to a group of organisms that is able to produce fertile offsprings

Genus Species: a class or group with common attributes

Evolution: The change in genetic make up in a population over sussessive generations

caused by Natural selection, inbreeding, or mutation

Adaptative trait: Heritable trait that allows an indivisual to survive through natural selection and reproduce more than other indivisuals

Selective pressure: An outside pressure from the population that makes it change genetically in order to survive

Differential Reproduction: Indivisuals can leave more off springs than others

Genetic Resistance: One or more organisms designed to tolerate a toxin that used to poison it.

Natural Selection can only occur when...

The trait is heritable: it can pass down through reproduction

Variable in population: Produced through random mutations

Differential reproduction: Indivisuals can leave more offspring than others

Limitations to natural selection:

change in the enviormental conditions can lead to adaptation only

for traits already present in the populations gene pool~or mutated

traits

limited to reproductive capicity

Species that are not genetically diverse reproduce slowly

Mutations: random changes in the structure or number of DNA molecules

Natural Selection: Happens on individuals but evolution occurs in populations

Genes

mutate, individuals are selected and populations evolve that are better

adapted to survive and reproduce under existing environmental

conditions

Gene Flow: the movement/exchange of genes from one population of species to another

Genetic Drift: The

process of change in a population of the genetic makeup due to random

events rather than natural selection~ leads to unequal reproduction

success

4 processes that can change the gene pool:

Mutation

natural selection

genetic flow

genetic drift

Genetic drift's gene frequency could help or hinder the species which would not make the trait adaptive

A

smaller population would produce a more rapid change in the gene pool

because 1 indivisual has a large effect in the reproduciton cycle

Bacteria

can reproduce rapidly causing it to have mutations that have a high

genetic resistance making the previous toxins no longer poisonous

A

population with a high reproduction capacity which are usually ones

with genetically diverse populations reproduce faster than those that

have slow reproduciton capacity because mutations take longer when there

are fewer offsprings being born.

Types of natural selection

Diversifying: selects two or more extreme genes that each have specific advantages~increase in genetic variance

Stabalizing: natural selection favors an average gene~decrease in genetic variance

Directional: Shifts towards new gene when exposed to enviormental changes

Convergent evolution: species that are not closley related start adapting similar traits due to enviormental conditions

Geographic Isolation: Different groups of the same species population become isolated in a specific region

Divergence: Moving or spreading apart

Speciation: two species arise from one

Reproductive Isolation: When a species is isolated for so long they can no longer reproduce fertile offsprings with one another

Why do species go extinct?

Meteors//climate change// invasive species// resource usage

Adaptive radiation: When an area is vancant and several new species occupy the space

Myths about evolution:

survival of the fittest means who can reproduce the most

not all mutations are for the better~ some hinder

Evolution is random not a part of natures plan

Habitat: place where the species lives

different from niche:

niche is the pattern of living versus habitat is where the species live

Niche: Every species has a specific role to play in the enviorment... that role given to the species is called a niche

Generalists species:

have broad niches

live in many places

eat variaty

tolerate enviormental changes

Specialist species:

narrow niches

few types of food

cannot tolerate wild climate changes

have few competitors

Indicator species: species that provide early warning signs of damage

Non-native species: (alien, invasive, exotic)

species that migrate to ecosystem

Opposite of Native species which normally thrive in the specific ecosystem

Endemic: Species that are not extinct but only exist in one specific region/ area

Keystone Species: species that have a large effect on the enviorment

more vunerable to extinction

they can be pollinators or high food chain animals because the nutrients is cycled through

Foundation Species: Creating/ enhancing communities in a way that benefits others

Island biogeography theory:

Birds that fly to this island are more prone to extinction because the resources are limited.

When island is low, extinction rate low because few birds

predicts that distant islands will have lower immigration rates than

mainland but close islands will have high immigration rates and support

more species

Large islands with low extinciton rates will have more species than smaller ones

islands closer to the mainland will have more species and distant islands will have less which ulitmately makes it equal

Species richness: raw number of species found in a community

Species diveristy: based on the number of individuals of each species

CHAPTER 5

Predation competition: when a predator eats all of a prey

Interspecific competition: when two or more species interact to get at the same resource

Competitive exclusion principle: no two species can occupy exactly the same ecological niche for very long because one will lose benefits to resources

Resource Partitioning: Some species evolve so that they do not have to compete with other species for resources

How does it effect the distribution?

this makes them more specialists than generalists

population dynamics: characteristic changes due to enviormental changes

Effects on evolution?

speeds up the evolution

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CHAPTER 9

chapter 4