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ATHENS
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1[blank_start]Attica[blank_end] was part of Central [blank_start]Greece[blank_end]. Effectively the [blank_start]southernmost[blank_end] section of central Greece,
surrounded on three sides by ocean: the [blank_start]Aegean[blank_end] and the [blank_start]Saronic[blank_end] Gulf. Ringed by mountains to the north including:
- Hymettos
- [blank_start]Pentelikon[blank_end]
Aigaleos
The Parnes.
To the south-east, in the Aegean are the Cyclades, including Ios, Naxos, Paros, and Delos.
South-west is the [blank_start]Peloponnesus[blank_end], the southernmost portion of mainland Greece, containing the important poleis of Argos, Corinth, and Sparta. Attica watered by two rivers, both unreliable:
- Eridanus River, which flowed through the centre of Attica
- Ilissus River to the south supplied Athens with fresh water
Attica had a series of [blank_start]fertile[blank_end] plains, although they were relatively small. Cereals, vegetables, grapes and olives were popular, as was [blank_start]dairy[blank_end] from the goats. Imports from the Aegean and Asia Minor included grain, timber, wool and [blank_start]iron[blank_end]. Most coastal demes had active [blank_start]fisheries[blank_end] industries.
The Climate: hot, dry summers and mild winters.
Other important features:
- Silver mine at [blank_start]Laurium[blank_end], east coast of the Attic peninsula.
- Mt Pentelikon (about 25 kms north east of Athens): rich in marble. Used for Pericles’ Building Program.
Running across Attica along a NW-SE axis is a [blank_start]limestone[blank_end] ridge. Both the Acropolis and the Pnyx are outcrops on this ridge. The Acropolis formed the obvious [blank_start]nucleus[blank_end] of the city: over time
it had key social, political, economic, religious, and military importance. After the construction of the Athenian perimeter walls the military significance declined; with the building program the
religious significance grew. Other key features include the Pnyx, the Areopagus, and the
agora.
Athenian walls constructed hastily after the victory of the [blank_start]Persians[blank_end] and against Spartan opposition. Key figure behind the construction of the walls fortifying the [blank_start]Piraeus[blank_end] and the city was the statesman [blank_start]Themistocles[blank_end], a man described by Thucydides as 'supreme at doing precisely the
right thing at precisely the right moment' (1.138.3). For this reason the walls around the Piraeus are called the Themistoclean Walls. These two sets of walls were later connected to one another by the long walls which were completed during the Periclean period, c. 450.
Before the fortification of the Piraeus (beginning 493 BCE but largely taking place after 480 BCE) the Athenians had used the beach of [blank_start]Phaleron[blank_end] as the harbour. Pireaus had the advantage of three deep harbours and of being much more defensible. The Themistoclean Walls around the Piraeus were extremely strong: square, dowelled (joined to one another by bolts), and thick, they could be defended by a small number of troops or inferior troops. The Piraeus became almost a second polis over the course of the 5th century, a locus of economic and military activity and social life.- AAttica
- BGreece
- Csouthernmost
- DAegean
- ESaronic
- FPentelikon
- GPeloponnesus
- Hfertile
- Idairy
- Jiron
- Kfisheries
- LLaurium
- Mlimestone
- Nnucleus
- OPersians
- PPiraeus
- QThemistocles
- RPhaleron
2Central focus for the Classical Greeks after the family unit ([blank_start]oikos[blank_end]) was the city-state or polis.
Polis made up of:
- Inhabitants
- Physical structures and infrastructure, including the surrounding countryside
- Religious, political and legal institutions.
- By the fifth century there are several hundred poleis in the Greek world.
- Plato suggested [blank_start]5 000[blank_end] citizens was the ideal number; Aristotle suggested that everyone should know everyone else by [blank_start]sight[blank_end].
- Only three poleis had citizen populations in excess of 20 000: Athens, Acragas, and [blank_start]Syracuse[blank_end] (the latter two in Sicily).
Athens mid-fifth century population (approx.): 43 000 citizens,129 000 women and children, 28 000 metics (foreign craftsmen and women), 115 000 slaves. To be a part of a polis entailed both rights and responsibilities.
Four social classes (introduced by Solon):
[blank_start]Pentakosiomedimnoi[blank_end]: Highest / wealthiest social class: landowners. Capable of producing 500 medimnoi (measures of wet or dry [blank_start]produce[blank_end]) Original [blank_start]archons[blank_end], Strategoi typically came from this class
Hippeis: Second wealthiest: capable of producing [blank_start]300[blank_end] medimnoi, Capable of equipping a [blank_start]horse[blank_end] for battle, hence the name (hippo)
Zeugitae: Owners of a yoke of [blank_start]oxen[blank_end] (tradesmen), [blank_start]200[blank_end] medimnoi, Hoplites
Thetes: Labourers, miners, <200 medimnoi, [blank_start]Rowers[blank_end]
Before the reforms of the 5th century, men in the first three classes could hold office while the thete class could participate in the ekklesia (assembly) and serve as [blank_start]dykastoi[blank_end] (jurymen).
[blank_start]Strategoi[blank_end] (general, strategist): One from each of the 10 tribes, Worked out of the [blank_start]Strategeion[blank_end] - tentatively identified as being just southwest of the [blank_start]Tholos[blank_end]. Elected annually, elected on merit, re-election allowed (archons elected by lot)
- Pericles elected perhaps as many as 22 times.
- Strategoi had the authority to:
- Conduct preliminary negotiations with [blank_start]foreign[blank_end] states
- Convene the ekklesia
- Strategoi still responsible to the ekklesia and could only act under its instructions.
Eventually this position became effectively the [blank_start]chief executive officer[blank_end] of the state, owing to the ability to convene and preside over meetings of the ekklesia.
Military made up primarily of Athenians, though [blank_start]mercenaries[blank_end] were used on occasion. Enrolled through deme/tribe. Spent first two years as an [blank_start]ephebe[blank_end] (epheboi). Given a spear and a shield from the state. Remained liable for military service up until they were [blank_start]60[blank_end]. Lists of the ephebes were posted on the noticeboard of the [blank_start]Eponymous Heroes[blank_end].
Hoplites: largest section of Athenian army. Name after the [blank_start]hoplon[blank_end], the heavy shield they carried. Usually from middle class. Needed to provide amour and [blank_start]three days’ rations[blank_end]. Hoplite warfare evolved along with the polis: Homeric warfare is based on the cult of [blank_start]individual heroism[blank_end]; the hoplite phalanx relies on cooperation and collegiality. Hoplite battles tended to be staged at agreed upon locations, and while very bloody were comparatively swift. Victory allowed one side to erect a [blank_start]tropaion[blank_end] (trophy) of captured arms, and both sides to gather their dead.
Hippies cavalry numbered [blank_start]1 000[blank_end] in the 5th and 4th century. A horse would be valued at over [blank_start]1200[blank_end] drachmas (1 drachma equalled a [blank_start]days[blank_end] wages for a skilled craftsman). Probably involved mostly in border patrols rather than fighting, as the hoplite phalanx allowed no role for cavalry. Hippeis led by the Hipparch, operating from the [blank_start]Hipparcheion[blank_end], probably just outside the agora. Role probably hereditary.
With the development of the Athenian navy, encouraged by the success at Salamis ([blank_start]480[blank_end] CBE) and the formation of the Delian League (c. [blank_start]478[blank_end] BCE), the focus of Athenian arms turns gradually from the hoplites to the rowers.
Rowers: thetes, [blank_start]metics[blank_end], slaves (in the later stages of the Peloponnesian War, allied subjects, some mercenaries). Estimated that Athens had a navy of almost 300 triremes at the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War ([blank_start]431[blank_end] BCE). Each trireme would require [blank_start]150-180[blank_end] rowers, working in three banks. Each trireme was fitted out, maintained, and captained by a member of the pentakosiomedimnoi called a [blank_start]trierarch[blank_end].
Crew was paid by the state, although trierarchs might augment the pay of good crews. In the Peloponnesian War, most rowers were paid 1 drachma per day (6 obols). Triremes were light and manoeuvrable: all comfort sacrificed to this end. Equipped with a bronze [blank_start]beak[blank_end] designed for ramming. Stern and sides vulnerable. Crews needed to be well-trained to perform the skilled manoeuvers that characterised trireme warfare, especially the [blank_start]diekplous[blank_end], which involved ships sailing through gaps in the enemy’s [blank_start]line[blank_end] and then ramming ships broadside or shearing off oars.
Triremes had sails, but most battles were fought near coasts and were short-lived: many naval battles were amphibious, involving battles for [blank_start]beachheads[blank_end].
Numbered some 130 000 including children. The Athenian [blank_start]wife[blank_end] was not a privileged position. Her status was far lower than that enjoyed by a Roman matron. Major issue: we have no [blank_start]written[blank_end] records from Athenian women. They appear in the archaeological record, sometimes in the manner men would like them to appear. Her place was in the home, the oikos. Even the shopping was done by her husband or a slave. She took no part in the public life of the day.
Important to understand that roles would depend on class: upper-class Athenian women had [blank_start]less[blank_end] social freedom than their poorer counterparts. They seem to have spent their lives occupied with the supervision of children and domestic slaves, food preparation and the manufacture of clothes. Women did not go about in public unescorted. Their crucial function, at least in the eyes of the menfolk, was to produce [blank_start]children[blank_end]. Girls tended to marry at about 14 due to an almost fanatical preoccupation with [blank_start]virginity[blank_end]. Marriages were arranged by fathers.
Society’s placement of value in virginity was linked to the need for securing [blank_start]property[blank_end]: don't want illegitimate sons claiming property; lives of seclusion further secured this legitimacy. Women did get away from the home for festivals and certain women only festivals such as the [blank_start]Thesmophoria[blank_end], a fertility festival which lasted for several days. Evidence that women had some influence within the family, and that their role in religious practice was vital.
Evidence from comedy and law court oratory show women taking a close political interest in the political and legal activities of their menfolk: [blank_start]Lysistrata[blank_end], Thesmophoriazusae, ekklesiazusae. Women could implement [blank_start]divorce[blank_end] proceedings, probably through the head of her original family (kyrios), and when divorced she took back her [blank_start]dowry[blank_end], a strong deterrent. Dowries were effectively protection money for daughters. A girl whose father had no male heir was known as an [blank_start]epikleros[blank_end] (kleros being property of the oikos); it was the duty of the next-of-kin to marry the epikleros and so keep the money in the family. Another option for an epikleros who married while her father was alive was for the father to adopt her husband.
Poorer women, who did not have slaves, would probably be more involved in the work of their husbands, might buy goods at the agora, and may even sell produce. Aristophanes mocks [blank_start]Euripides[blank_end] in The Frogs because his mother was supposed to have been a vegetable seller.
[blank_start]Hetaerae[blank_end] (or hetairai) were courtesans or prostitutes from outside Athens. Some of them were well-educated; others were talented [blank_start]musicians[blank_end]. They are featured prominently in art of the period, as they were far more visible than Athenian women. [blank_start]Aspasia[blank_end], the partner of Pericles, was probably the most famous woman in Athens in the 5th century, though she was [blank_start]Milesian[blank_end] (from the Ionian city Miletus) and a hetaera. It was expected or at least condoned for Athenian men to have sexual relations with slaves or metic women provided they did not father children with them.
Women’s greatest role outside the home was in the state religion. Athenian year marked by more than 100 festivals, some lasting several days. At the majority of these women were participants and in many of them officiated as priestesses. [blank_start]Chief[blank_end] priestess of Athena [blank_start]Polias[blank_end], the protector of the city, was the most important woman in Athens. This priestess would likely be a senior member of an [blank_start]aristocratic[blank_end] family. Young girls were involved in many rituals: see Lysistrata.
Women had a particularly important role to play in fertility festivals, including the [blank_start]Eleusinian[blank_end] Mysteries and the Thesmophoria. Any man, woman, metic or slave could become inducted into the Eleusinian Mysteries which were connected with the worship of [blank_start]Demeter[blank_end] and [blank_start]Persephone[blank_end] (Kore), but the exact nature of the mysteries is unknown. The Thesmophoria was a women-only festival which took place outside the city and was dedicated to Demeter.
Women and girls also played an important role in the [blank_start]Panathenaia[blank_end]. Specially chosen girls would weave a new [blank_start]peplos[blank_end] (robe) for the statue of Athena Polias and this would be the most important offering in the great procession to the temples on the Acropolis. Greeks believed that virginity and chastity were appreciated by the gods and this would have contributed to their feelings about its importance.
Most common dress among Greek women was comprised of
three garments:
- Short [blank_start]chiton[blank_end] worn next to the skin
- Long tunic which came on top of this like a dress
- Cloak which acted like a shawl.
The peplos was still worn by some women and had an important ceremonial function (cf. Greater Panathenaia). This was draped, fastened and tied rather than sewn. Women would commonly paint their faces white with [blank_start]chalk[blank_end] before being seen in public: this is reflected in vases.
A [blank_start]metic[blank_end] (or metoikos) was a resident alien and was not granted citizenship. They were voluntarily immigrants who contributed greatly to Athenian prosperity. Numbered some 30 000. Restrictions/requirements:
- Had to have a [blank_start]patron[blank_end] or sponsor.
- Had to register as living in a particular area.
- Largely carried out the industrial and commercial life of Athens.
- They could own no [blank_start]land[blank_end] and paid a special (direct) tax.
- Implications - what jobs would they be drawn to?
Were subject to military [blank_start]call up[blank_end]. The fact that they were willing to accept military call up indicates the benefits they gained from being in Athens. Brought their wealth and financial skills to Athens because of its strength and commercial freedom. Other metics were skilled craftsmen or intellectuals e.g. sculptors of the Acropolis, speech writers, musical experts and
entertainers.
They ran workshops called [blank_start]ergasteria[blank_end]. The largest known ergasterion was that of [blank_start]Cephalus[blank_end] and later his son, [blank_start]Lysias[blank_end], who employed 120 slaves making shields. There were also much humbler metics who traded in the marketplace. According to the 'Old Oligarch' metics were [blank_start]indistinguishable[blank_end] from citizens in their dress. He also said Athenians had rightly put metics on equal terms with citizens in the matter of freedom of speech, 'for the city needs metics because of all its industries and because of the fleet'.
There appear to be metics in every occupation throughout Athenian life apart from farming. If a slave chose to remain in Athens after becoming freed he became a metic, and his former owner acted as [blank_start]sponsor[blank_end].
Slaves were numbered some 115 000. Many were captured in war or purchased in the slave trade (based on [blank_start]Delos[blank_end]) but others were born into slavery. Asia and the Black Sea coast were common sources of slaves. A few rich Athenians owned many slaves while some were owned by the city, e.g., the [blank_start]Scythian[blank_end] archers were a type of 'police force‘; other slaves filled roles on behalf of the state in commerce: slaves were in charge of public weights and
measures. Nicias was reputed to own more than a thousand slaves. It seems that only the poorest of Athenian families could not afford a slave or two; a wealthy Athenian with a lot of land might have owned 50 slaves or more, which would be part of the oikos. In Aristophanes' plays even peasant farmers own slaves. Activities included production of clothes, preparation and the serving of food, cleaning, shopping at the market and accompanying the children of the house to school ([blank_start]paidogogos[blank_end]).
Slaves were also a potential source of profit. Their wares could be sold. If they were trained they could be resold at a profit. They could also be [blank_start]leased[blank_end] out at a suitable price: Nicias leased his slaves to work in the mines for 1 obol per slave per day. More skilled slaves would fetch higher prices. Xenophon claims that Nicias paid a talent (6 000 drachmae, 36 000 obols) for a manager of his silver mines.
There is no doubt that the widespread nature of slavery allowed the Athenian middle and upper classes to devote themselves to pursuits other than earning a living. The great achievements in the fields of literature, philosophy, art and architecture do rest to some extent on the foundation of [blank_start]slavery[blank_end].
Slaves could buy their [blank_start]freedom[blank_end], a real incentive to become more skilled and work harder. There developed a '[blank_start]loan society[blank_end]' or 'benefit club' where a slave could borrow the money to buy his freedom then pay it back as a freedman. A mistreated slave could take refuge:
- In the temple of [blank_start]Hephaestus[blank_end] (near the agora)
- At the altar of [blank_start]Eumenides[blank_end] (Areopagus)
- Altar of 12 Gods
The slave could then ask to be sold to someone else, but would
have to return to his master if a buyer could not be found. Original master could not punish a slave for doing this. It seems [blank_start]fettering[blank_end] of potential runaways was common.
Athenian comedy shows us slaves on familiar, even cheeky terms with their masters. e.g. The Frogs. Evidence suggests that the slaves were reasonably well treated. Xenophon has Socrates say that slaves, like houses, land, and livestock are ‘things that are both acquired and looked after with care.’ But slaves were certainly regarded as inferior.
To [blank_start]kill[blank_end] a slave was illegal, although to [blank_start]torture[blank_end] one was not. Slaves could not take legal action or even appear in court. Statements could only be accepted in court if they had been extracted under torture, demonstrating that they were regarded as inherently [blank_start]untrustworthy[blank_end].
In turn, a master was responsible for all his slaves’ actions. (i.e. slaves were [blank_start]objects[blank_end] rather than subjects under the law.) They were allowed to participate in the family's religious worship. The religious life of the Athenians again is shown to be less exclusive than their political system: both slaves and metics could be inducted into the Eleusinian Mysteries, for example.
By 700 kingship had ceased to be [blank_start]hereditary[blank_end] and become an annual position ([blank_start]archon basileus[blank_end]). Government was in the hands of the aristocrats ([blank_start]eupatridae[blank_end] or eupatrids); poorer citizens were tied to nobles in regions (hill, plains, coastal) and in kinship groups ([blank_start]phratries[blank_end]). Six judges ([blank_start]thesmothetae[blank_end]) also created to work with the archons and ensure fairness; indication of some discontent with the artistocracy. In 632 [blank_start]Cylon[blank_end] (an aristocrat) tried to establish a tyranny with the
support of his father-in-law, the tyrant of Megara.
Was opposed by Athenian people; sought refuge in the temples on the acropolis; was tricked and killed by Megacles, a member of the Alcmaeonid clan. In this act lie the origins of the Curse of the Alcmaeonidae, as the murder was seen as violating the sanctity of the temples.
In [blank_start]621[blank_end], Draco codified Athenian laws. Previously laws had been transmitted [blank_start]orally[blank_end] and interpreted by the eupatrids in passing justice. Draco’s laws were very harsh (hence our adjective ‘draconian’) but they marked the move from the rule of men to the rule of [blank_start]law[blank_end].
Social and economic crisis in the late 7th century BCE made the aristocrats realise that laws (particularly laws related to debt) were making the prospect of [blank_start]tyranny[blank_end] more likely. Solon reformed the laws c. [blank_start]594[blank_end] BCE, creating ‘good order’ ([blank_start]eunomia[blank_end]) by forming the four classes, reforming the organs of government, and cancelling old debts ([blank_start]seisachtheia[blank_end] or ‘shaking off burdens’). Solon also made it impossible for free citizens to be enslaved to pay off debts.
Social turmoil continued and after a series of struggles and attempts, [blank_start]Pisistratus[blank_end] used foreign connections and [blank_start]Thracian[blank_end] gold to establish a tyranny, one-man rule not based on the hereditary principle. Ruled from 536 till his death in 527. Succeeded by his sons Hippias and [blank_start]Hipparchus[blank_end]. Appears to have been a just ruler who promoted the interests of the poor over those of the eupatridae. Hippias and Hipparchus were not [blank_start]popular[blank_end]: Hipparchus was assassinated; Hippias eventually fled to the Persians in 510. [blank_start]Cleisthenes[blank_end], an Alcmaeonid, reformed Solon’s system from 507, making it much more democratic.
Cleisthenes broke the power of the eupatrids by organising Attica into approximately 150 [blank_start]demes[blank_end] which were then broken into thirds based on geographic characteristics (coastal, inland, city—hence trittyes) and then dividing all citizens of these demes into ten tribes ([blank_start]phylae[blank_end]). Citizens would thereafter be identified with their hereditary deme and would vote, fight, and worship in their new tribal, rather than their old regional or familial, groups. This created equality ([blank_start]isonomia[blank_end]) and increased loyalty to Athens and Attica at large. The tribes were given the names of Athenian heroes, hence the Altar of [blank_start]Eponymous[blank_end] Heroes in the Athenian agora.
Cleisthenes also broadened the use of appointing magistrates by [blank_start]lot[blank_end]. Aristotle also credits Cleisthenes with introducing the concept of [blank_start]ostracism[blank_end], although there is no recorded use before 487 BCE.
Made up of ex-archons (had to have land/wealth). Membership for life. Originally controlled the administration of the state, supervised the magistrates and inflicted penalties. Judged all cases of premeditated [blank_start]homicide[blank_end]: an attempt to break down the clan rivalries and feuds (cf. Aesychlus’
Eumenides). Gradually controlled the [blank_start]government[blank_end] of Athens.
[blank_start]Ephialtes[blank_end], around 468/67, set out to attack the Areopagus. He instituted a series of [blank_start]reforms[blank_end] (Aristotle, Athenian Constitution, 25) which withdrew from the Areopagus:
- the power to punish magistrates for [blank_start]misconduct[blank_end]
- the power to supervise the administration of the state
- the duty of seeing that the laws were obeyed
- the right to investigate the lives of [blank_start]private[blank_end] citizen.
These functions were transferred to the [blank_start]boule[blank_end], ekklesia and the heliaea or dikasteria (the precise difference is hard to quantify). The Areopagus retained power over judging intentional homicide.
Archons and Magistrates were chosen from whole citizen body by lot. 9 in number.
Administrative only:
i. [blank_start]Polemarch[blank_end]: Military Archon
ii. Eponymous: [blank_start]President[blank_end] of the state
iii. Archon Basileus: [blank_start]Religion[blank_end]
iv. The six [blank_start]Thesmothetae[blank_end]: Jury Courts
The power of archons was weakened by Aristides and later Pericles through the use of the lot. Reputedly in 487 [blank_start]Aristides[blank_end] introduced a decree whereby ‘every citizen would have a share in the government and the Archons would in future be elected from the whole body of voters.’ (Plutarch, Life of Aristides, 22) The archon was chosen randomly out of the last fifty candidates. This meant that the position became less desirable for aspiring [blank_start]politicians[blank_end]. It also opened the way for the middle classes.
Payment of the archons ensured the success of these reforms. Other magistracies varied from corn supply to superintendents of the docks. All were open to public scrutiny. Some served overseas.
Ekklesia was a [blank_start]Sovereign[blank_end] political body. All male citizens over the age of 18. Met approx. 40 times per year, thus well organised to deal with business speedily.
Powers:
- Passed [blank_start]legislation[blank_end]. Required a quorum of 6 000 for important business.
- Elected magistrates.
- Heard accounts from retiring magistrates.
- Acted as the final court of [blank_start]appeal[blank_end].
- [blank_start]Empowered[blank_end] strategoi (generals).
- Guardian of the constitution.
- Right to punish public officials.
- Tried cases where public interest was threatened.
Scythian [blank_start]archers[blank_end] would daub citizens who were not attending the assembly with red [blank_start]paint[blank_end], marking them as being unable to conduct business while the ekklesia met. Assembly began with an announcement by a herald and one of the [blank_start]prytaneis[blank_end] (a member of the boule) would be chosen by lot to preside. A [blank_start]secretary[blank_end] kept records. Report from the boule was read and strategoi and then other magistrates could speak.
Any citizen could speak and seek to amend legislation but new [blank_start]proposals[blank_end] had to be submitted to the boule. Individuals were responsible for their proposals; after one year the people were responsible. Voting was by a show of [blank_start]hands[blank_end] except in the case of ostracism. Laws were reviewed before the people by the thesmothetae; if they required emendation the laws would be put on trial, with defenders and prosecutors. Sources include ekklesiazusae (Aristophanes) and the writings on the constitution of both the ‘Old Oligarch’ and Aristotle (both after our period).
The Boule was also known as the [blank_start]Council of 500[blank_end]. Composed of citizens over the age of [blank_start]thirty[blank_end]. Chosen by lot. 50 per [blank_start]tribe[blank_end]. Met in the Bouleterion in the agora. Records kept in the Old Bouleterion or [blank_start]Metroon[blank_end], next door. Worked in committees (prytaneis=presidents) for a tenth of the year (35/36 days), perhaps based on tribe. The prytaneis would be housed and fed in the tholos: needed to be available all the time. Members could not sit more than [blank_start]twice[blank_end] and not in consecutive years.
Members of the boule took an oath on entering office and had their accounts examined (by the ekklesia) on leaving office. Members paid 1 drachma per day. [blank_start]Foreman[blank_end] of the prytaneis chosen by lot and had the keys to the temples and would conduct meetings of the ekklesia. We know that Socrates was the foreman at one stage during the Peloponnesian War. Prytaneis dealt with routine matters, prepared the agenda for the boule and reported to the boule daily. Boule prepared motions ([blank_start]proboulema[blank_end]) for the ekklesia.
Members of the boule would see that decrees were carried out, manage public monies and public works, and supervise the military in accordance with the decisions of the ekklesia.
Ten generals (strategoi) elected annually by the assembly: almost [blank_start]uniformly[blank_end] from the wealthiest classes. All constitutionally equal: prospect of re-election meant those who had served before probably had [blank_start]more[blank_end] influence with the ekklesia. Generals [blank_start]unpaid[blank_end] except when on military service. Implications? Failure to carry out duties properly could result in a fine, or exile (or death: Arginusae). Controlled all military forces: one commanded hoplites and foreign [blank_start]expeditions[blank_end]; one controlled [blank_start]borders[blank_end]; three looked after the navy in the Piraeus; others assigned as needed.
Strategia could convene meetings of the ekklesia although they did not preside as such.
Some confusion over terms dikasteria and heliaea. Can sometimes seem interchangeable. [blank_start]Heliaea[blank_end] best understood as the ekklesia functioning as a jury or court of appeal. [blank_start]Dikasteria[blank_end] as the law courts in general. Both heliasts and dikasts used for jurors. Aristophanes’ Wasps is a major source of information on the functioning of the courts, as are speeches given in the courts of the fourth century BCE.
All citizens over 30 eligible to be jurors. 6 000 selected at the start of each year: 600 from each tribe. Each given a bronze ‘ticket’ (a [blank_start]die[blank_end]) with his name on it. Before juries were empanelled these tickets would be placed in a box and entered into a randomisation machine, the [blank_start]kleroterion[blank_end], in order to prevent corruption. This combined with the size of the jury (between 200-500) and the fact that they were chosen on the day made bribery and intimidation difficult. An archon (one of the thesmothetae) usually presided over the court, but only to keep control, not to dispense justice or legal advice.
Each case was heard on its merits. The prosecutor and the defence both spoke on their own behalf, although it was common to use speechwriters. Longwinded bores were discouraged by the [blank_start]klepsydra[blank_end] (‘water thief’), which limited speeches to about 6 [blank_start]minutes[blank_end]. Decisions and punishments were made by voting using ballots; both the winning and defeated sides had to propose a punishment.
The requirement for ostracism was that 6 000 citizens would need to agree to having an ostracism. At the next meeting all eligible citizens would write the name of the individual on an [blank_start]ostraka[blank_end] (potsherd used for ostracisms), which were deposited in a large pot. The person receiving the majority of votes was [blank_start]exiled[blank_end] for 10 years, sometimes with their immediate [blank_start]family[blank_end]. Their nearest relative would look after their estate meanwhile. Means of settling political disputes without recourse to [blank_start]violence[blank_end]. Many prominent political figures (Themistocles, Aristides, Xanthippus, Cimon) were ostracised for a period of time.- Aoikos
- B5 000
- Csight
- DSyracuse
- EPentakosiomedimnoi
- Fproduce
- Garchons
- H300
- Ihorse
- Joxen
- K200
- LRowers
- Mdykastoi
- NStrategoi
- OTholos
- PStrategeion
- Qforeign
- Rchief executive officer
- Smercenaries
- Tephebe
- U60
- VEponymous Heroes
- Whoplon
- Xthree days’ rations
- Yindividual heroism
- Ztropaion
- AA1 000
- AB1200
- ACdays
- ADHipparcheion
- AE480
- AF478
- AGmetics
- AH431
- AI150-180
- AJtrierarch
- AKbeak
- ALdiekplous
- AMline
- ANbeachheads
- AOwife
- APwritten
- AQless
- ARchildren
- ASvirginity
- ATproperty
- AUThesmophoria
- AVLysistrata
- AWdivorce
- AXdowry
- AYepikleros
- AZEuripides
- BAHetaerae
- BBmusicians
- BCAspasia
- BDMilesian
- BEChief
- BFPolias
- BGaristocratic
- BHEleusinian
- BIDemeter
- BJPersephone
- BKPanathenaia
- BLpeplos
- BMchiton
- BNchalk
- BOmetic
- BPpatron
- BQland
- BRcall up
- BSergasteria
- BTCephalus
- BULysias
- BVindistinguishable
- BWsponsor
- BXDelos
- BYScythian
- BZpaidogogos
- CAleased
- CBslavery
- CCfreedom
- CDloan society
- CEHephaestus
- CFEumenides
- CGfettering
- CHkill
- CItorture
- CJuntrustworthy
- CKobjects
- CLarchon basileus
- CMhereditary
- CNeupatridae
- COphratries
- CPthesmothetae
- CQCylon
- CR621
- CSorally
- CTlaw
- CUtyranny
- CV594
- CWeunomia
- CXseisachtheia
- CYPisistratus
- CZThracian
- DAHipparchus
- DBpopular
- DCCleisthenes
- DDdemes
- DEphylae
- DFisonomia
- DGEponymous
- DHlot
- DIostracism
- DJhomicide
- DKgovernment
- DLEphialtes
- DMreforms
- DNmisconduct
- DOprivate
- DPboule
- DQPolemarch
- DRPresident
- DSReligion
- DTThesmothetae
- DUAristides
- DVpoliticians
- DWSovereign
- DXlegislation
- DYappeal
- DZEmpowered
- EAarchers
- EBpaint
- ECprytaneis
- EDsecretary
- EEproposals
- EFhands
- EGCouncil of 500
- EHthirty
- EItribe
- EJMetroon
- EKtwice
- ELForeman
- EMproboulema
- ENuniformly
- EOmore
- EPunpaid
- EQexpeditions
- ERborders
- ESHeliaea
- ETDikasteria
- EUdie
- EVkleroterion
- EWklepsydra
- EXminutes
- EYostraka
- EZexiled
- FAfamily
- FBviolence
3All [blank_start]demes[blank_end] would have their own [blank_start]agora[blank_end] (‘gathering place’) or marketplace. Athenian agora particularly important as it was the regional centre for social and philosophic pursuits. Important also to remember that the [blank_start]Piraeus[blank_end] was also an economic centre in the mid-5th century BCE.
Excavations have been carried out in the agora for decades, largely by the American School of Classical Studies. All [blank_start]distances[blank_end] in the polis [blank_start]measured[blank_end] from the Altar of the 12 Gods.
Some have argued that the growth of the Piraeus made 5th century Athens bipolar. Piraeus laid out on a grid pattern by [blank_start]Hippodamus of Miletus[blank_end].
The [blank_start]Delian[blank_end] League was formed in 478 BCE. Alliance of (largely [blank_start]Ionian[blank_end]) poleis (approx. [blank_start]150[blank_end]) united by the continued threat of [blank_start]Persia[blank_end]. Bound to support one another and contribute funds or ships to
a common defence. Treasury stored on [blank_start]Delos[blank_end] in the [blank_start]Cyclades[blank_end]; moved (to the [blank_start]Parthenon[blank_end]?) by Pericles in [blank_start]454[blank_end] BCE for ‘safekeeping’. Each polis had an equal voice, although Athens was
acknowledged as the League leader, the [blank_start]hegemon[blank_end]. Over the next 50 years Athens expanded the League and her role in it so that the allied poleis became [blank_start]subjects[blank_end] rather than allies of Athens. Thucydides says Athens had three motives for wishing to
establish an empire:
- [blank_start]Security[blank_end]
- Honour
- Self-[blank_start]interest[blank_end]
Much debate on the extent to which Athens was dependent on its empire. Did the tribute paid by the allies/subjects of the Delian League make the ‘radical democracy’ possible? Athens experienced a marked increase in [blank_start]population[blank_end] in the period, partly in response to, and partly as a catalyst for, economic growth. This was in turn linked to the empire; and the scope of the democracy evolved along with imperial expansion. This created a need for more [blank_start]grain[blank_end], which in turn made the security of shipping lanes vital. Money paid by the allies ([blank_start]phoros[blank_end]) did form part of the funds used by Pericles for his building program (cf. Plutarch) but a large part of it was used to fund the [blank_start]fleet[blank_end], its real purpose, and more kept in reserve.
Raw materials to build and maintain the fleet had to be sought
outside Attica: Attica sparsely forested: timber imported from [blank_start]northern[blank_end] Greece. Iron also was imported. In our period approx. 12 000 rowers were permanently on the [blank_start]Aegean[blank_end] in 80 triremes, and being paid 1 drachma per day by the state. In the lead-up to the Peloponnesian War Thucydides assesses Athens’ naval strength at 300 triremes. Most of these would be more commonly in dock at the Piraeus (and [blank_start]guarded[blank_end]) than at sea.
In the period after 460 Pericles proposed a radical building program, with its main aim the rebuilding of the temples on the acropolis that had been destroyed by the [blank_start]Persians[blank_end] in [blank_start]480[blank_end]
BCE. Controversially, Delian League funds (about 1/60th of the total) were used by Pericles to build the Parthenon, the [blank_start]Propylea[blank_end], and the giant statues of Athena, the Promarchos and the [blank_start]chryselephantine[blank_end] Parthenos. The Erectheum and Temple of Athena Nike were built later,
during the Peloponnesian War. Thucydides, son of Milesias, described the adornment of
Athens at the expense of the allies as ‘[blank_start]bare-faced tyranny[blank_end].’
Plutarch:
- Pericles replied that the Athenians were not obliged to give the allies any account of how their money was spent, provided that they carried on the war for them and kept the Persians away.
- ‘They do not give us a single horse, nor a soldier, nor a ship. All they supply is money,’ he told the Athenians, ‘and this belongs not to the people who give it, but to those who receive it, so long as they provide the services they are paid for.’
As above, [blank_start]trade[blank_end] was essential to Athens: Attica’s natural resources could not support the population. In addition to grain and other essentials, Athens also became a [blank_start]locus[blank_end] for all manner of goods from around the world. Pericles: ‘the magnitude of our city draws the produce of the world into our harbour, so that to the Athenian the fruits of other countries are as familiar a luxury as those of his own.’ The growth of Athens also made many skilled craftsmen and intellectuals from around the Aegean choose Athens as their home: Protagoras, Anaxagoras, Zeno the Eleatic, Hippodamus, Herodotus, and later Aristotle were all metics in Athens.
As above, unclear how much of the phoros was ‘[blank_start]banked[blank_end]’ by Athens. Certainly the costs of maintaining the fleet and of military actions (often against wayward allies such as Samos and Poteidaea) were very high. As the power of Athens develops wayward League members or poleis that Athens believes should join but who do not are forced into the League, pay greater tributes, and are listed as ‘[blank_start]subject allies[blank_end]’.
The [blank_start]Chalcis[blank_end] decree, issued after the [blank_start]Euboean[blank_end] cities revolted, required the inhabitants to take an oath ‘not to revolt against the Athenian demos’ and ‘to be obedient to the Athenian
demos’. A variety of inscriptions and other epigraphic evidence (as well as the accounts of Plutarch and Thucydides) attest to the changing nature of the League and the growing demands of the former hegemon, now [blank_start]ruler[blank_end].
Triremes were essential to safeguard the shipping lanes across the Aegean. The grain route from the Black Sea coast was particularly vital. Wealthy Athenians might finance the trade by purchasing a [blank_start]cargo[blank_end] and hiring a vessel, although usury was criticised by many.
Silver mines in [blank_start]Laurium[blank_end] were owned by the state and leased out to private contractors. The state was paid a fixed sum and a percentage of the profits from the silver. At one stage as many as [blank_start]20 000[blank_end] slaves were at work in the mines, so these revenues were an important source of state
funds. It appears that the general economic growth and the increase in silver was [blank_start]inflationary[blank_end]; a sheep which cost 1 drachma in the time of Solon cost 50 drachma in the time of Pericles.
Athenian coins (typically obols and drachmae) were generally stamped with the Attic [blank_start]owl[blank_end] (symbol of Athena’s wisdom) or the head of Athena. In our period subject allies are forced to begin using Athenian weights and measures and Athenian Currency in trade. The coins are [blank_start]commodity[blank_end] rather than fiat currency, meaning the coins themselves are of value. Greater denominations are larger, heavier, and more pure than smaller denominations.
Attic pottery was the most famous and sought after in the whole [blank_start]Mediterranean[blank_end]: it was an important source for Etruscan pottery and many other schools. The industry in Athens was based around the [blank_start]Kerameikos[blank_end] region, a suburb near the [blank_start]Dipylon[blank_end] Gate, and our source for the
word ‘ceramic’. In the fifth century BCE black-figure work was replaced by [blank_start]red-figure[blank_end] work. Fired pottery does not degrade; this means that it is over-represented in the archaeological record, but it also one of our most valuable sources for the lives of fifth century Athenians.
The Periclean building program and the [blank_start]long walls[blank_end] demonstrated the skill of the stone masons either native to or resident in Athens. Archaeologists and architects are still making discoveries about the buildings on the acropolis and the ingenious means by which they were constructed. The finest marble was found on Mt [blank_start]Pentelikon[blank_end], north-east of Athens. Iron was imported but worked in Athens to provide stability for buildings and into shields, tools, etc. (e.g. the ergasteria of Cephalos and Lysias).
Vast size of the Athenian navy meant that ship building and maintenance was a major drain on the treasury and on Delian League funds.
Also a major source of employment, and part of the reason the Piraeus was an essential component of the Athenian economy.
While many, perhaps the majority, of citizens would have been involved in [blank_start]agricultural[blank_end] pursuits, the nature of the Athenian economy and government created a great number of other occupations and [blank_start]industries[blank_end].
The growth of the Piraeus and the fleet, along with the Periclean building program, created new job opportunities for Athenians of different social classes, and for metics.
[blank_start]Pottery[blank_end]: not only painting and potting, but also digging clay, firing, selling and distributing the work.
[blank_start]Shipbuilding[blank_end]: including importing of materials, maintenance, etc.
[blank_start]Trade[blank_end]: importing and exporting; retail trade in the agora.
[blank_start]Money-lending[blank_end]: Greek word for ‘table’ trapeza is the Greek for bank.
Slaves would obviously fill a variety of roles, from working in silver mines to acting as a [blank_start]paidogogos[blank_end].
Cephalus and his sons owned Athens’ largest [blank_start]ergasteria[blank_end], employing 120 slaves in manufacturing armaments.- Aagora
- Bdemes
- CPiraeus
- Dmeasured
- Edistances
- FHippodamus of Miletus
- GDelian
- HIonian
- I150
- JPersia
- KDelos
- LCyclades
- MParthenon
- N454
- Ohegemon
- Psubjects
- QSecurity
- Rinterest
- Spopulation
- Tgrain
- Uphoros
- Vfleet
- Wnorthern
- XAegean
- Yguarded
- ZPersians
- AA480
- ABPropylea
- ACchryselephantine
- ADbare-faced tyranny
- AEtrade
- AFlocus
- AGbanked
- AHsubject allies
- AIChalcis
- AJEuboean
- AKruler
- ALcargo
- AMLaurium
- AN20 000
- AOinflationary
- APowl
- AQcommodity
- ARMediterranean
- ASKerameikos
- ATDipylon
- AUred-figure
- AVlong walls
- AWPentelikon
- AXagricultural
- AYindustries
- AZPottery
- BAShipbuilding
- BBTrade
- BCMoney-lending
- BDpaidogogos
- BEergasteria
4There is a great development in sculpture from the 7th to the late [blank_start]5th[blank_end] century BCE.
This reflects [blank_start]developments[blank_end] in thought, in politics, and in medicine and physiology.
[blank_start]Archaic[blank_end] statues (c. 640-480 BCE), most famously the standing youths called [blank_start]kouroi[blank_end], develop into fluid forms that show the skin beneath the garment, the muscles beneath the skin, and the [blank_start]bones[blank_end] below the muscles.
Likely that many statues were first formed in [blank_start]clay[blank_end] and then cast in [blank_start]bronze[blank_end]; because bronze was more expensive than marble, most of these have (probably) been melted down and have not survived.
The hallmarks of the [blank_start]Classical[blank_end] style, particularly relating to the sculpting of the human figure are the principles of harmony, balance, and [blank_start]naturalism[blank_end] (i.e. an accurate representation of the human form).
Most common types:
[blank_start]Kylix[blank_end]: bowl for drinking, two handles; picture disclosed as wine consumed.
[blank_start]Krater[blank_end]: mixing bowl for wine and water, scene running round exterior.
[blank_start]Oinochoe[blank_end]: Wine jug with exterior scene.
[blank_start]Lekythos[blank_end]: tall narrow oil jar usually used in libations and funerary ceremonies.
As with sculpture, and almost everything else in Greek life, painting was a competitive activity.
The struggle agon between competing forces was believed to bring forth [blank_start]arête[blank_end], or excellence, the highest Greek ideal.- A5th
- Bdevelopments
- Ckouroi
- Dbones
- EArchaic
- Fbronze
- Gclay
- HClassical
- Inaturalism
- JKylix
- KKrater
- LOinochoe
- MLekythos
- Narête
5Olympian Gods were worshipped throughout Greece: along with [blank_start]language[blank_end], a uniting force among the poleis.
Most important Gods in Athens (in terms of festivals, evidence in the archaeological record, etc.):
[blank_start]Athena[blank_end] (obviously): patron of the city; goddess of wisdom; protector of [blank_start]virginity[blank_end]; patroness of olives, weaving, metalwork; goddess of [blank_start]strategy[blank_end] as opposed to violence of war.
[blank_start]Apollo[blank_end]: [blank_start]oracular[blank_end] god; god of music; god of harmony and order.
[blank_start]Poseidon[blank_end]: god of the sea; supposed to have been defeated by Athena in a [blank_start]contest[blank_end] for protector of the city.
[blank_start]Zeus[blank_end]: chief of the Olympian Gods.
[blank_start]Demeter[blank_end]: Goddess of the harvest, worshipped in the [blank_start]Thesmophoria[blank_end] and the Eleusinian Mysteries.
[blank_start]Dionysus[blank_end]: god of win, revelry, and discord: honoured in the [blank_start]Dionysia[blank_end] and the production of plays.
Greeks had no word for ‘[blank_start]religion[blank_end]’. Robert Garland says that, contrary to modern practice, Greek religion:
- Had no dogma
- Had no set of core beliefs
- Had no ‘official’ interpretation of observance
- Had no church and nothing resembling a centralised religious hierarchy
- Had no concept of conversion
- Drew no distinction between the sacred and the secular (or the profane)
- Had little notion of sin or redemption (but did believe in ‘pollution’)
- Had no religious ‘rule of life’
- Did not deny worldly pleasures
- Did not promise eternal salvation or damnation
- Did not conceive a barrier between religion and everyday life
No doctrinal [blank_start]texts[blank_end].
No sense of [blank_start]atheism[blank_end]; some (e.g. Anaxagoras) believed that the gods had no interest in human affairs, but he did not say they were [blank_start]imaginary[blank_end]. Our understanding comes from written sources & the archaeological profile.
Written sources include:
- Homer
- Hesiod
- The tragedians (Aesychlus, Sophocles, Euripides)
- Aristophanes
- Histories of Herodotus and Xenophon (NOT Thucydides)
- Speeches of orators such as Antiphon
- Philosophy of Plato and others
Archaeological sources include:
- Gravestone inscriptions and other epigraphic evidence
- Vase-paintings
- Tomb artefacts
- Remains of temples, sanctuaries and other buildings.
At the heart of Greek religion lay the active worship of gods under their cult [blank_start]epithets[blank_end] with a civic orientation. Priests and priestesses were usually attached to a cult and, unless they were attached to a shrine or oracle, their role was ceremonial only. Some priesthoods were hereditary; others were apportioned by lot. From 487 onwards the [blank_start]archon basileus[blank_end] was decided by lot and Pericles opened this up to the zeugitae as well as the two wealthiest classes.
Prayers were one means of communicating with the gods: an invocation of the god would be followed by a request; this could also be a curse (e.g., the Alcmaeonid curse from 610 BCE) Sacrifices to the Olympic gods: smoke of the sacrificial victim was believed to ascend to Olympus and was pleasing to the gods. Different gods demanded different sacrificial animals and numbers. At the Great Dionysia in 333 BCE 240 bulls were sacrificed to Dionysus. Animals would be garlanded and groomed; following a ritual cry from a priestess they would have their throats cut and all but a small part of the flesh would be shared by the worshippers. Animals sacrificed to chthonic deities or to the dead were always female or castrated (and black) and they were burned whole (a holocaust) after their blood had seeped into the ground.
Gifts were made either in anticipation or in gratitude for some godly [blank_start]deed[blank_end], by individuals or communities. The Sacred Way to [blank_start]Delphi[blank_end] was lined with temples erected by various Greek poleis.
Liquid offerings made to gods in a solemn ceremony. Usually some combination of wine, honey, olive oil and milk. [blank_start]Spondê[blank_end] was a request to be protected by the gods (i.e. on leaving for war) Choê was an offering to the dead or to a [blank_start]chthonic[blank_end] deity.
The male head of the household, the [blank_start]kyrios[blank_end], was in charge of all domestic worship. This would include offerings to [blank_start]Hestia[blank_end], the goddess of the hearth, and the welcoming of babies and new brides into the oikos. Women played a vital role in funeral practices which were also conducted under the auspices of the kyrios.
Athena regarded as having emerged, fully grown and fully armed from the head of Zeus, after he had slept with [blank_start]Metis[blank_end], the goddess of wisdom.
- [blank_start]Wisdom[blank_end]: born from the mind of the chief Olympian
- [blank_start]Virgin[blank_end]: born outside the normal parameters of reproduction; autochthony
- [blank_start]Warrior[blank_end]: Athena as warrior is one who emphasises the craft and strategy of war rather than its bloody and unpredictable side (this is left for Ares) Athena’s birth depicted on the eastern pediment of the Parthenon.
[blank_start]Theseus[blank_end] was a hero worshipped throughout Attica. The son of a mortal mother and Poseidon; a founder-hero for the Ionians in the same way Heracles was a founder-hero for the Dorians. Responsible for [blank_start]synoikismos[blank_end] (‘dwelling together’), the bringing together of the people of Attica into the polis. Focus of Theseus’ cult was the tomb: in [blank_start]476[blank_end] BCE the Athenians received an oracle telling them to recover the bones of Theseus, and [blank_start]Cimon[blank_end] led an expedition to do this. Cimon ‘recovered’ the bones on [blank_start]Scyros[blank_end] (an island in the Aegean) and returned them in triumph to Athens. Bones stored in the Theseion and became the focal point of the [blank_start]Theseia[blank_end], the celebration held to honour Theseus. Important in demonstrating the central position of Athens in Attica and in ascribing the political unity of the region to a mythical cause.
Mythical stories of these figures and their dealings with [blank_start]Erectheus[blank_end] helped explain festivals and cults: in particular, all three figures are worshipped in the [blank_start]Erectheum[blank_end] and Poseidon and Erectheus are sometimes conflated into a single figure [blank_start]Poseidon Erectheus[blank_end]. Erectheus said to have been born from the soil and the semen of [blank_start]Hephaestus[blank_end]. Poseidon and Athena competed to win patronage of [blank_start]Athens[blank_end] by offering gifts. Poseidon offers a spring; Athena an [blank_start]olive tree[blank_end]. While Athena is the [blank_start]patron[blank_end], Poseidon is very important to the Athenians: this reflects their geographic position. This competition was depicted on the [blank_start]western pediment[blank_end] of the Parthenon.
There were thousands of sanctuaries in the Greek world, from the very famous [blank_start]Oracle at Delphi[blank_end] to small temples known only to members of the local [blank_start]deme[blank_end]. All were erected on sacred ground, which was usually indicated by a wall or [blank_start]boundary stones[blank_end]. Within this sacred ground it was regarded as polluting to give birth, have sex, die or murder, or be [blank_start]buried[blank_end]. Common features included an [blank_start]altar[blank_end]; more elaborate temples would contain a [blank_start]cult statue[blank_end] (such as the Athena Parthenos). They were administered by the priests or priestesses associated with the ritual observances; normally they might be open only a few days a year.
Parthenon dedicated to the cult of [blank_start]Athena the virgin[blank_end]; contained the giant chryselephantine cult statue inside the [blank_start]cella[blank_end]; may also have functioned as a treasury. The Erectheum was dedicated to both Athena and Poseidon and commemorated their contest for supremacy in Athens and their relationship with King Erectheus. Inside the temple was the olive tree that Athena caused to grow and the salt spring that Poseidon brought forth by smashing his [blank_start]trident[blank_end] into the earth.- Alanguage
- BAthena
- Cvirginity
- Dstrategy
- EApollo
- Foracular
- GPoseidon
- Hcontest
- IZeus
- JDemeter
- KThesmophoria
- LDionysus
- MDionysia
- Nreligion
- Otexts
- Patheism
- Qimaginary
- Repithets
- Sarchon basileus
- Tdeed
- UDelphi
- Vchthonic
- WSpondê
- Xkyrios
- YHestia
- ZMetis
- AAWisdom
- ABVirgin
- ACWarrior
- ADTheseus
- AEsynoikismos
- AF476
- AGCimon
- AHScyros
- AITheseia
- AJErectheus
- AKErectheum
- ALPoseidon Erectheus
- AMHephaestus
- ANAthens
- AOolive tree
- APpatron
- AQwestern pediment
- AROracle at Delphi
- ASdeme
- ATboundary stones
- AUburied
- AValtar
- AWcult statue
- AXAthena the virgin
- AYcella
- AZtrident
Informações
- Descrição
- Ancient History Quiz sobre ATHENS, criado por Joel Fitzgibbons em 20-11-2018.
- Autor
- Joel Fitzgibbons
- Idioma
- English
- Visualizações
- 5
- Etiquetas
- Avaliação
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