Principles of Learning Theory K-6 Study Guide

Successful Collaboration Involves...

• 1. Develop an ACTION PLAN
• 2. Identify the STAKEHOLDERS
• 3. Identify the PURPOSE OF COLLABORATION
• 4. Effective COMMUNICATION
• 5. SEEK SUPPORT

Variables that Affect Student Performance

• -Learning Style
• -Gender
• -Culture
• -Socioeconomic Status
• -Prior Knowledge and Experience
• -Motivation
• -Self-Esteem/Self-Confidence
• -Cognitive Development
• -Maturity
• -Language

Cognitive Processes Associated with Learning

• -Critical Thinking
• -Creative Thinking
• -Questioning
• -Inductive and Deductive Reasoning
• -Problem Solving
• -Planning
• -Memory
• -Recall

Instruction Strategies for Indirect Instruction

• -Problem Solving
• -Inquiry
• -Case Studies
• -Concept Mapping
• -Reading for Meaning
• -Cloze Procedures

Instructional Strategies for Independent Instruction

• -Learning Contracts
• -Research Projects
• -Learning Centers
• -Computer-Mediated Instruction
• -Distance Learning

Instructional Strategies for Experiential Instruction

• -Field Trips
• -Experiments
• -Simulations
• -Role Playing
• -Games
• -Observations

Instructional Strategies for Interactive Instruction

• -Brainstorming
• -Cooperative Learning Groups
• -Interviews
• -Discussions
• -Peer Practice
• -Debates

Strategies to Encourage Complex Cognitive Processes

• -Concept Learning
• -Problem Solving
• -Metacognition
• -Critical Thinking
• -Transfer

Activities Specific to Complex Cognitive Development

• -Distinguishing Fact from Fiction
• -Detecting Bias
• -Predicting
• -Categorizing
• -Analyzing
• -Sequencing
• -Summarizing
• -Inferring
• -Decision Making
• -Evaluating
• -Synthesizing
• -Generalizing

Strategies to Support Student Learning

• -Modeling
• -Self-Regulation Skills
• -Scaffolding
• -Differentiating Instruction
• -Guided Practice
• -Coaching

Promoting Self-Regulatory Skills in Students

• -Setting Own Goals
• -Managing Their Time
• -Organizing Information
• -Monitoring Their Progress
• -Reflecting on Outcomes
• -Establishing Productive Work Environment

Group Configuration Designs

• -Whole-Class
• -Small-Group
• -Independent
• -One-on-One
• -Pair/Share

Grouping Techniques and Strengths/Weaknesses

• -Cooperative Learning
• -Collaborative Learning
• -Heterogenous Grouping
• -Homogenous Grouping
• -Multi-Age Grouping
• -Grouping by Gender

Strategies of Classroom Management

• -Classroom Routines and Procedures
• -Maintain Accurate Records
• -Establish a Standard of Conduct
• -Proper Arrangement of Class Space
• -Promote a Positive Learning Environment

Strategies for Developing Self-Motivation

• -Assigning Valuable Tasks
• -Frequent and Specific Positive Feedback
• -Include Students in Instructional Decisions
• -De-Emphasize Grades

Resources in Supporting Learning

• -Computers, the internet, and other Electronics
• -Library-books, magazines, pamphlets
• -Videos/DVDs
• -Artifacts
• -Models
• -Manipulatives
• -Speakers and Community Members

Concepts of Thematic Instruction

• -Select the Theme
• -Provide Integrated Activities
• - Select Resources
• -Design Assessments

Components of Interdisciplinary Units

• -Collaboration
• -Applicable Topics
• -Develop an Integrative Framework
• -Plan Instruction for each Discipline
• -Design Integrative Assessments
• -Recognize the Role of Collaborating
• -Use Instructional Partners in Planning

Planning Partners

• -Special Education Teachers
• -Library Media Specialist
• -Gifted and Talented Teachers
• -IEP Team
• -Para Educators
• -Therapists (speech, physical, and occupational)

Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Methods

• -Body Language
• -Gestures
• -Tone, stress, and inflection of Voice
• -Eye Contact
• -Facial Expressions
• -Personal Space

Communication Tools that Enrich Learning Environment

• -Audio and Visual Aids
• -Text and Digital Resources
• -Internet and Computer-Based Tools

Effective Listening Strategies

• -Attending to the Speaker
• -Restating Key Points
• -Asking Questions
• -Interpreting Information
• -Positive, Supportive Feedback
• -Be Respectful

Effective Questioning Strategies

• -Providing Thinking or Wait Time
• -Helping Articulate Ideas
• -Respecting the Student’s Answers
• -Handling Incorrect Answers
• -Encouraging Participation
• -Establish Non-Critical Classroom Atmosphere
• -Promote Active Listening
• -Varying the Question Types

The Use of Questioning

• -To Develop an Interest or Motivation
• -To Evaluate Student Preparation
• -To Review Previous Lessons
• -To Help Set Realistic Expectations
• -To Engage in Discussion
• -To Determine Prior Knowledge
• -To Prepare for what is to be Learned
• -To Guide Thinking
• -To Develop Critical Thinking and Creative Skills
• -To Check for Comprehension and Level of Understanding
• -To Summarize Information
• -To Stimulate Students to Pursue on their own

Strategies for Supporting Articulation of Ideas

• -Verbal and Nonverbal Prompting
• -Restatement
• -Reflective Listening Statements
• -Wait Time

Methods to Encourage Higher-Level Thinking

• -Reflection
• -Challenge Assumptions
• -Find Relationships
• -Determine the Relevancy and Validity of Information
• -Design Alternative Solutions
• -Draw Conclusions
• -Transfer Knowledge

Strategies to Promote a Safe and Open Forum

• -Engaging all Learners
• -Creating Collaborative Environments
• -Respecting Diverse Opinions
• -Support Risk-Taking

Behaviorism

• Behaviorism views learners as passive, only responding to stimuli.
• It is focused objectively on observable behaviors, discounting mental activity.
• Learning is accomplished when a new behavior is observed.
• Behavior is shaped through positive/negative reinforcement and punishment.
• Contains Classical and Operant Conditioning.
• Classical Conditioning-The natural reflexive response to stimuli. (Pavlov and the dogs salivating)
• Operant (Behavioral) Conditioning-When the response to the stimuli is reinforced.

Behaviorism Instructor Roles

• -Design the learning.
• -Shape the behaviors through positive and negative reinforcement.
• -Presents the information to the students.
• -Students demonstrate the information to show an understanding.
• -Assess students mainly through tests.

Behaviorism in the Classroom

• -Identify possible reinforcers by observing student behaviors.
• -Select the stimulus used to bring about a certain behavior.
• -Identify and describe the objective of the observable behavior.
• -Use shaping and small steps to reach the behavioral goal.
• Behaviorism plays a large role in motivation, classroom management, and special education needs.

The Strengths of Behaviorism

• -Focused on specific goals
• -The cues help prompt the learner’s behaviors
• -Has very clear objectives
• -Behaviors can be very predictable

The Limitations of Behaviorism

• -Dependent on appropriate stimuli for intended behaviors
• -Learning is considered reactionary
• -The knowledge is considered finite
• -A burden is placed on the instructor to continue reinforcing behaviors
• -Cues may not always exist for the learner to respond to
• -Behaviorism does not explain all learning, such as children picking up different languages, etc.

The Theorists of Behaviorism

• -Thorndike, Watson, Skinner, Pavlov, and Bandera
• Thorndike:
• -We learn by trial and error or by reward and punishment.
• -Learning involves the formation of connections.
• -Connections are strengthened according to Thorndike’s Law of Effect.
• -Education should be as life-like as possible.
• -LAW OF EFFECT: when a connection between stimulus and response is positively rewarded, it is strengthened. When it is negatively rewarded, it is weakened.
• -LAW OF EXERCISE: the more a stimulus response is practiced, the stronger it becomes.
• -THEORY OF TRANSFER OF IDENTICAL ELEMENTS: the amount of learning between familiar and unfamiliar situations is determined by the number of elements that the two situations have in common.
• Watson:
• -Coined the term “Behaviorism”.
• -Considered emotions to be examples of Classical Conditioning
• -Opposed mentalistic concepts and derived many of his studies from Pavlov.
• Skinner:
• -Focused on Operant (Behavioral) Conditioning.
• -Worked with a stimulus, response, and then positive/negative reinforcements and punishments.
• Pavlov:
• -Classical Conditioning
• -Focused on the spontaneous reactions, automatic to stimuli.
• Bandera:
• -Unique in Behaviorism
• -Social Learning Theory
• -Modeling
• -Reciprocal Determinism: the influences on behavior including-the environment, the individual, and the behavior itself.
• -Vicarious learning
• -Imitation
• -Observational Learning
• -Stresses Cognition
• -Self-Efficacy
• -Self-Regulation
• -Differentiated Learning

Cognitivism

• The psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition and cognitive development.
• -How we think
• -How we gain knowledge
• -How problem-solving changes through childhood to adulthood
• -How cultural differences affect the views of academic achievement
• Involves examining learning, memory, problem-solving skills, and intelligence.
• Learners process, store, and retrieve information much like a computer.
• The learner uses information processing to transfer and assimilate new information.

Cognitivism in Instruction

• 2 factors are critical to motivation:
• -Value (the importance of the work to students and others)
• -Effort (the amount of time and energy put into the work)
• Students should always understand both!
• The instructor should always:
• -analyze the situation
• -set a goal
• -break down the individual tasks to develop learning objectives

Cognitivism Key Concepts and Models

• -Schema: the internal knowledge structure. Schemas can be combined, extended, and altered.
• -Assimilation: Person perceives the new object in terms of their existing knowledge.
• -Accommodation: Person modifies the existing cognitive structures based on the new information.
• -Equilibration: Includes both assimilating and accommodating, which is the master developmental process.
• -3 Stage Information Processing Model:
• Sensory Register~Short-Term Memory~Long-Term Memory
• -Sensory Register: Receives information from the senses and the information lasts from less than 1 second to 4 seconds. The information is either transferred to the short-term memory, decayed, or replaced.
• -Short-Term Memory: The information that does get processed in the short-term memory is information that is important or interesting. It lasts up to 20 seconds, if rehearsed repeatedly. The short-term memory can recall 5-7 items, which can be increased through meaningful chunking.
• -Long-Term Memory: Has unlimited capacity. Forced sometimes through rote memorization. Generating links between old and new knowledge requires deeper processing and leads to better retention.
• -Practice Effects: Practicing and rehearsing improves retention. Especially through the repetition in different contexts.
• -Transfer Effects: Prior learning impacts the new tasks/content.
• -Interference Effects: When prior knowledge interferes with new learning.-Organization Effects: Organized categories are easier to remember.
• -Levels of Processing: Words may be processed on a scale of sensory analysis. The more deeply the information is processed, the easier it is to recall.
• -State Dependent Context: It is easier to remember learning when in the same context as when first learning.

Piaget and Cognitivism

• -4 Stages of Cognitive Development (Theory):
• 1. Sensorimotor Stage (birth-2)-knowledge based on interactions with the environment. Children learn through trial and error. Early language development. Object permanence is reached around 7-9 months.
• 2. Preoperational Stage (2-7)-Use language. Memory and imagination are increased. Can understand the past and future. Cannot understand cause and effect relationships. Very egocentric and intuitive intelligence. Not logical.
• 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)- Logical and systematic symbol manipulation. Less egocentric.
• 4. Formal Operational Stage (11-adult)- Abstract concepts and symbols can be grasped. Can hypothesize. Understand abstract relationships.
• -Theories focused attention on the idea of developmentally appropriate education.
• -Piaget believes education should be based on physical and cognitive abilities, as well as social and emotional needs.
• -Need a suitable environment, appropriate curriculum, materials, and instruction techniques.
• -Self-initiated, active involvement is crucial to learning.
• -Discovery learning is emphasized.
• -Must accept individual differences developmentally. Each student has a different rate of development.
• -Assessments should be made for each child’s course of development, and should not use normative standards of same age peers.

Cognitive Development Relies On..

• 1. Biological Maturation
• 2. Experiences with the Physical Environment
• 3. Experience with the Social Environment
• 4. Equilibration

Cognitivism in the Classroom

• -Carefully assess the current cognitive development and only assign tasks when the child is prepared.
• -Create a disequilibrium to allow students to explore and learn through discovery.
• -The process of how a student learns is far greater than the final product.
• -Encourage students to learn from each other.
• -Small-group activities
• -Teacher is only the guide.
• -The curriculum is adapted to individual needs and developmental levels.
• -The instructor manages the problem-solving activities and group-learning strategies.
• -Provide opportunities to connect the new information to a schema.
• -Use a variety of experiences.
• -Emphasize discovery, collaborative, concrete, hands-on learning.
• -Classify and group information to help assimilate the information.
• -Use logical and analytic thinking.
• -Teach broad concepts and not just facts.
• -Make the context meaningful for students.

Vygotsky and Cognitivism

• -Learning is passed down through guided social interactions.
• -Cognitive development understanding has to address cultural and social contexts as well.
• -The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
• -Scaffolding

Strengths of Cognitivism

• -Unlike Behaviorism, Cognitivism focuses on the learners.
• -Learners beliefs, thoughts, values, and interests are very influential in the instruction process.
• -Individuals are identified and instructed as such.

Limitations of Cognitivism

• -The learner is at a disadvantage when relevant schemas or pre-requisite schemas do not exist.
• -The teacher must make sure instruction is appropriate for ALL skill levels and experiences which can be costly and time-consuming.
• -There is a fixed set of expectations, which limits the potential of learning.

Constructivism

• -Learning is an active process of constructing knowledge, not acquiring it.
• -Learners construct new ideas or concepts based on their current prior knowledge, social interactions, and motivations.
• Learner is not a blank slate (tabula rasa)
• -Problem-based learning

Constructivism in the Classroom

• -Teachers should focus on making connections for new understanding.
• -Tailor the strategies to the student responses.
• -Encourage analysis, interpretation, and predictions.
• -Use open-ended questions and extensive dialogue.
• -Use hands-on learning
• -Eliminate the standard curriculum and customize to the student’s prior knowledge.
• -Use multiple perspectives of concepts and content.
• -Goals and objectives should be set by students and the teacher.
• -Encourage metacognition, self-awareness, self-regulation, and self-reflection.
• -Student is at the center of instruction.
• -Use relevant, realistic, and authentic instruction to draw in the real-world complexities.
• -Use primary sources!
• -Never have students reproduce something, instead have them construct the knowledge.
• -Assessments should be authentic and interwoven into the unit. Should require self-evaluation of the learner.

Bruner and Constructivism

• -Influenced by Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory.
• -“Mental Sets”: the needs, motivations, and expectations
• -Structure is very important
• -Spiral Curriculum: revisiting basic ideas over and building upon them and elaborating.
• -When influenced by Vygotsky, turned to more social and political views of learning.
• Bruner’s Instruction Theory:
• 1. Predisposition to Learn: motivational, cultural, and personal factors contribute. Learning emerges from exploration, so teachers should maintain direct explorations in the classroom.
• 2. Structure of Knowledge: the categorization of content can enable learning.
• 3. Modes of Representation: visual, words, symbols (multiple modes)
• 4. Effective Sequencing: should increase in difficulty, making learning either easier or harder.
• 4 Characteristics of Effective Instruction:
• 1. Personalized
• 2. Content Structured in the most easy way to be grasped.
• 3. Sequencing
• 4. Reinforcement-selected and paced appropriately whether good or bad.
• Intellectual Development:
• 1. Enactive: learns about the world through actions on physical objects and the outcomes.
• 2. Iconic: learning is obtained through models and pictures.
• 3. Symbolic: learner develops the capacity to think in abstract terms.
• Recommends Concrete~Pictorial~Symbolic sequencing, or CRA (concrete, representational, abstract)

Dewey and Constructivism

• -Progressive education-learning by doing!
• -Philosophy of Pragmatism: reality must be experienced
• -Democratic ideals between the teacher and students
• -Child-centered instruction
• -Interdisciplinary Curriculum
• Experiential Learning Theory:
• -social environment
• -knowledge is socially constructed and is based on experiences
• -knowledge should be organized in real-life experiences
• -should be based on the capabilities and readiness of students

Strengths of Constructivism

• -Students are better able to deal with real-life situations
• -Supports good problem-solving

Limitations of Constructivism

• -It is very hard to evaluate adequately because it is very open-ended and tailored to each student.

3 Domains of Learning

• -Cognitive
• -Affective (feelings, attitudes, values, appreciation, motivation)
• -Psychomotor

Achievement, Ability, and Aptitude Tests

• Achievement Tests: measure what the student already knows
• Ability Tests: measure the abilities and skills present in the student
• Aptitude Tests: measure the abilities/inabilities and the potential abilities the student has

Scope and Sequence

• They are the guideline for integrating learning strategies into the curriculum.
• They help identify which strategies to teach students and how to check their progress.
• All students can use learning strategies, which is why we introduce them starting in 1st grade.
• At each grade level there are strategies appropriate for student’s developmental level.
• -Introduce the new strategy
• -Review the strategy
• -Expand the strategy
• Scope: the breadth and depth of content to be covered
• Sequence: the order in which the content is presented

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

• Level 1. Preconventional Morality
• Stage 1-Obedience and Punishment
• -Rules are fixed and absolute
• -Child avoids the punishment
• Stage 2-Individualism and Exchange
• -Individual needs and views are considered
• -Reciprocity is possible, but only if it serves their own interests
• Level 2. Conventional Morality
• Stage 3-Interpersonal Relationships
• -Focus is on living up to social expectations and roles
• -Conformity is emphasized
• -Think about how their choices influence others
• Stage 4-Maintaining Social Order
• -Society is considered as a whole
• -Law and order is maintained
• -Do their duty
• -Respect the authority
• Stage 5-Universal Principles
• -Internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with the laws of society
• -Not everyone will reach this level

Bloom’s Taxonomy

• Remembering
• Understanding
• Applying
• Analyzing
• Evaluating
• Creating

Erikson’s Stages of Development

• 1. Infant (Birth to 18 months): Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (hope)
• -visual contact and touch needed to develop optimism, trust, confidence, and security
• -if not enough nurturing is met insecurity, worthlessness, and general mistrust of the world can be the result
• 2. Toddler (18 months-3 years): Autonomy vs. Shame (will)
• -child learns new skills and what is right and wrong
• -a well cared for child will be sure of themselves and have a sense of pride
• -if not cared for they will feel shame and low self-esteem
• 3. Preschooler (3-5 years): Initiative vs. Guilt (purpose)
• -children will copy adults and take initiative during role play
• -this introduces the “Oedipal Struggle”
• -children begin to identify with certain social roles
• -if frustrated over their goals and desires children will easily feel guilty
• 4. School-Age (6-12 years): Industry vs. Inferiority (competence)
• -Latency phase
• -children are capable of mastery many skills at this age and can develop a lot of knowledge
• -children develop a sense of industry
• -a very social stage for this age
• -children experience inadequacy and inferiority at times
• 5. Adolescent (12-18): Identity vs. Identity Diffusion (fidelity)
• -development is primarily only what the people do on their own at this point
• -teens struggle to find their identity while negotiating with social interactions and “fitting in”
• -they develop their own rights and wrongs of life, morally and will develop strong devotions
• -some will experience “Moratorium” which is when they attempt to delay their entrance into adulthood
• 6. Young Adult (18-35): Intimacy vs. Isolation (love)
• -seek love and many want to settle down
• -crave deep intimacy but isolation may occur if unsuccessful
• 7. Middle-Age Adult (35-65): Generatively vs. Self-Absorption (care)
• -career and family come first at this stage
• -they experience more control
• -they experience “Generatively” which is when someone attempts to produce something that makes a difference to society
• -these are times of major life shifts
• -inactivity and meaninglessness are big fears
• 8. Older Adult (65-Death): Integrity vs. Despair (wisdom)
• -a time of great reflection
• -some sense “Integrity” which is a contentment with life and a feeling of being fulfilled
• -some sense a feeling of despair and may fear death

Foundational Motivation Theories

• -Self-Determination Theory (SDT): States that people have a built-in tendency to want to grow and develop.
• There are 3 concepts that affect motivation in this theory:
• 1. Autonomy
• 2. Competence Feedback
• 3. Relatedness
• -Cognitive Dissonance Theory: When cognitions are in tandem, they are called “Consonant Compatible Cognitions” and are working together. “Dissonance” is when 2 cognitions are in direct conflict with one another, which causes a state of anxiety.
• -Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Maslow believed “Self-Actualization” was what drives humans. He created a pyramid of needs that must be satisfied before the following ones can be met.
• 1. Physiological-food, shelter, and clothing
• 2. Security and Safety
• 3. Love and Belonging
• 4. Competence and Esteem
• 5. Curiosity-the need to know
• 6. Self-Actualization
• (the last two are growth needs)
• -Attribution Theory: Explains the process in which individuals explain the causes of behavior and events that happen to them.
• -This explains the difference between high and low achievers
• -Higher Achievers: they approach rather than avoid tasks related to succeeding because they attribute success to high ability and effort they put in. They are confident of their abilities.
• -Lower Achievers: They avoid tasks because they doubt their abilities and/or attribute success to luck or something out of their control. They do not have much pride in their abilities.
• 1. Behavior is observed
• 2. Behavior is determined to be deliberate
• 3. Behavior is attributed to internal or external causes
• -Achievement is attributed to:
• effort, luck, ability, level of task difficulty
• -Extrinsic/Intrinsic Motivation Theory: Self-determination-amotivation-extrinsic-intrinsic-motivation.png
• -The self-determination spectrum goes from motivation to extrinsic motivation to intrinsic motivation
• -Amotivation: no competence, no choice, no intentions, see no value in behavior
• -External Regulation: external controls, external rewards, obedience, punishments
• -Introjected Regulation: focus on approval, competition, feelings of pride or guilt (internal rewards and punishments)
• -Identified Regulation: high perceived value or personally feel it is important
• -Integrated Regulation: have integrated into self-concept (who they are)
• -Knowledge Accomplishment Stimulation: feel internal pleasure and have fun learning and working

Areas of Student Learning

• -Cognitive
• -Auditory
• -Visual
• -Motor/physical
• -Speech/language
• -Behavioral
• (each domain can be an area of exceptionality or disability)

Bandera’s Social Learning Theory

• -People learn from each other via observation, imitation, and modeling
• -A bridge between behavioral and cognitive theory
• -Requires observing other’s behaviors, attitudes, and outcomes
• Effective Modeling
• 1. Attention:
• -Various factors can increase/decrease the amount of attention paid including:
• distinctiveness (the characteristic of a person)
• affective valence (the variety and complexity of emotions)
• prevalence
• complexity
• functional value
• sensory capacities
• arousal level
• perceptual set (tendency to view things a certain way)
• past reinforcements
• 2. Retention: Remembering
• -Symbolic coding
• -Mental images
• -Cognitive Organization
• -Symbolic rehearsal
• -Motor rehearsal
• 3. Reproduction: Reproducing the image
• -physical or observing reproduction
• 4. Motivation: Good reasons to imitate
• -Past motives
• -Promised incentives (possibly imaginary)
• -Vicarious (seeing/recalling the model)

Applying Bandera’s Modeling

• -Highest level of observational learning is first organizing and rehearsing the modeled behavior symbolically and then poverty.
• -Words labels and images=better retention
• -Students are more likely to model if the outcomes are valued
• -More likely to adopt behavior if model is similar to one used and has an admired status.
• 3 Models of Observational Learning:
• -Live model
• -Verbal instructional model
• -Symbolic model (character in book)

Types of Assessments

• -Formative
• -Summative
• -Diagnostic (pre-assessment)

Assessment Tools

• -rubrics
• -analytical checklists
• -scoring guides
• -anecdotal notes
• -continuum

Norm-Referenced VS. Criterion-Referenced Scoring

• Norm-Referenced: Assesses the mastery of specific concepts or skills in comparison to other test takers. This can be used to determine the need for academic support.
• Criterion-Referenced: Assesses to see if the students have obtained the knowledge from the curriculum. It is to judge the effectiveness of instruction.

Holistic Rubric VS. Analytical Rubric

• -Analytical Rubric: judges each criterion separately using a performance guide.
• -Holistic Rubric: assesses the entire work as a whole.

Modifications for Exceptionalities

• ELL:
• -Find out their skills and interests
• -Keep high expectations
• -Differentiate-homework, assessments, classwork
• -Small-group work
• -Collaboration
• -Simplified instructions and texts
• -Labels
• ADD/ADHD:
• -provide advance graphic organizers
• -review and summarize the lessons before starting
• -set expectations that are clear
• -set behavioral expectations
• -state what they will need
• -refer them to best resources
• -remain predictable
• -use audiovisual tools
• Autism:
• -be consistent
• -use visual instructions
• -provide a visible classroom schedule and rules
• -use picture icons
• -have a sensory area
• -have visual behavioral reminders
• -provide transition time
• -highlight directions and key words
• -number the steps

English Language Acquisition

• Split into 2 different stages:
• 1st Language Acquisition (the universal process of imitating sounds)
• 2nd Language Acquisition (knowledge obtained in the person’s first language)
• There are 6 stages of language acquisition:
• 1. Pre-production: “silent period”, takes in the language, lasts about 6 or more weeks
• 2. Early production: short words and sentences, listening and absorbing more, has many errors
• 3. Speech Emergent: more speaking, longer sentences, relies heavily on context clues and familiarity, vocabulary increases, errors decrease in common and repeated phrases
• 4. Beginning Fluency: fairly fluent, minimal errors, new content is challenging, have trouble expressing themselves fully
• 5. Intermediate Fluency: fluent, few gaps
• 6. Advanced Fluency: fluent in all contexts, may still have accent, some idiomatic expressions are incorrect at times

Differentiation

• Differentiation is based on the needs of students in:
• -Readiness
• -Interest
• -Learning Profile (how they approach learning)
• Differentiation is achieved by modifying 4 elements related to the curriculum:
• 1. content (what will be learned by the students and what will they need to do it?)
• 2. process (what will the students do in order to learn and master the content?)
• 3. product (what project will the students do to rehearse, apply, and extend what they have learned?)
• 4. learning environment
• Differentiation Examples:
• Content:
• -providing different level spelling lists
• -using auditory and visual cues
• -providing books on tape
• Process:
• -provide interest centers for the students to explore
• -develop personal agendas for each student that include the same basic understanding and mastery of skills
• -tiered activities where the complexity of the tasks differ
• Product:
• -provide a menu of options for students to choose from
• -make personal rubrics for each student
• -encourage group or single projects
• -more open-ended projects that meet the specified criteria
• Learning Environment:
• -have collaborative and quiet space
• -allow students to move around and others to remain seated

Traits of Gifted and Talented Students

• -unusual alertness
• -rapid learner
• -excellent memory
• -has a large vocabulary and uses more complex sentence structures
• -has an advanced understanding of abstract concepts
• -has more deep feelings and is sensitive

Education Legislation

• Equal Access Act: Federal Law
• -Bans religious discrimination within the school
• -One student has the right to establish a non-curricular club after school hours
• Copyright Law:
• -Must have written permission, purchased, or have paid a royalty to use
• -Books where the author has died plus 70 years are not copyrighted anymore
• -Teachers may copy chapters of books, magazine and newspaper articles, short stories, poems, diagrams, and pictures
• Tenure: Teachers with tenure have an indefinite position
• Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities in employment, transportation, public accommodations, communications, and government activities.
• Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA): a Federal law that protects the rights of students with disabilities by providing a free and public education. (FAPE). This includes:
• -equal access
• -additional services
• -the right to the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE)
• -coverage from age 3-21
• -covers 13 categories of disability
• Section 504: this act came in place of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act to extend Federal responsibilities to all disabled.
• -No one disability can be excluded if it limits 1 or more major activities
• -This includes ADD/ADHD, asthma, allergies